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MiUt^it^t  educational  iHonograpIj^ 

EDITED  BY  HENRY  SUZZALLO 

PROFESSOR   OF   THE    PHILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION 
TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


TEACHING  CHILDREN 
TO  STUDY 

BY 

LI  DA  B.  EARHART,  Ph.  D. 

INSTRUCTOR     IN     ELEMENTARY    EDUCATION 
TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON,  NEW  YORK   AND   CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,   1909,  BY  LIDA  B.  EARHART 
ALL    RIGHTS   RESERVED 


u.  . 

l:^' 

\  3  5 

E 

[t. 

Of 

.a. 

TO  MY  FATHER 

JOSEPH  EARHART 

THIS  BOOK  IS  AFFECTIONATELY 
DEDICATED 


CONTENTS 

Preface vii 

Editor's  Introduction          .        .        .        .  ix 

I.   The  Nature  of  Logical  Study         .  i 

II.   The  Nature  of  Inductive  Study  23 

III.  The  Nature  of  Deductive  Study    .  59 

IV.  The    Relation   of   Rational   Study 

to  Text-book  Study       .        .        .81 

V.   Do    Children    PossE^^fc^  ^Ability 

TO  Study  Logically?      /^  .        .107 

VI.   Are    Children    Taught    to    Study 

Logically? 121 

VII.   Can  Children  be  Taught  to  Study 

Logically? 13 1 

VIII.   Suggestions  for  Training  Children 

to  Study 139 

Outline 177 


PREFACE 

The  problem  of  teaching  children  to  study,  to- 
wards the  solution  of  which  this  volume  is  offered, 
was  presented  before  a  class  in  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  during  the  year  1905-06, 
by  Dr.  Frank  M.  McMurry,  Professor  of  Elemen- 
tary Education.  It  is  largely  due  to  his  particu- 
lar encouragement  and  assistance  that  the  author 
underto*>k  the  special  investigation  of  the  prob- 
lem of  teaching  children  to  study.  To  Professor 
McMurry,  and  also  to  Professors  G.  D.  Strayer 
and  Henry  Suzzallo,  both  of  Teachers  College,  a 
great  debt  is  due  for  counsel  and  direction  freely 
given  during  the  years  which  this  study  has  oc- 
cupied. 

The  attempt  to  solve  this  problem  necessitated 
the  employment  of  philosophy  on  the  one  side,  to 
establish  the  nature  and  function  of  study,  and 
the  use  of  experimental  and  psychological  method 
on  the  other,  to  determine  the  ability  of  pupils  to 
study  logically  and  also  the  possibility  of  training 
them  into  correct  habits  of  study.  Schoolroom 
visitation  and  the  questionnaire  were  also  em- 
ployed to  throw  light  upon  the  teachers'  ideas  of 

vii 


PREFACE 

study,  present  practice  in  training  pupils  to  study, 
and  the  ability  of  children  to  study.  The  field  to 
be  covered  proved  to  be  a  very  broad  one,  but 
interest  grew  as  the  work  proceeded,  not  only 
because  an  entirely  new  light  was  thrown  upon 
schoolroom  procedure,  but  also  because  of  the 
attitude  of  the  teachers  themselves  towards  the 
problem.  Many  expressed  the  earnest  wish  that 
results  might  be  worked  out  which  would  bring 
help  to  them  in  their  efforts  to  teach  their  classes. 

To  meet  the  needs  of  these  teachers  and  others, 
the  original  report,"  Systematic  Study  in  the  Ele- 
mentary Schools,"  has  been  rewritten  in  fuller 
and  simpler  form  so  as  to  make  it  more  usable 
and  helpful;  the  present  book  is  the  result.  It 
carries  the  author's  greetings  to  her  companions 
of  the  schoolroom. 

Those  who  desire  details  in  regard  to  the 
experiments  and  questiofmaires,  and  who  care 
to  consult  the  tabulated  results,  are  referred  to 
the  book  "  Systematic  Study  in  the  Elementary 
Schools,"  Bureau  of  Publication,  Teachers  Col- 
lege. Other  books  bearing  upon  special  phases 
of  the  subject  are  referred  to  in  the  text. 

L.  B.  E. 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

The  failure  of  the  reactionary 

There  is  a  feeling  that  our  schools  are  over-bur- 
dening our  children  with  subjects  for  study,  and 
that  a  kind  of  superficial  training  results.  Many 
believe  that  we  ought  to  return  to  the  simple 
curriculum  of  our  colonial  fathers,  to  fewer  sub- 
jects and  more  particularly  to  those  which  are 
sometimes  called  "fundamentals,"  —  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  like.  This  species  of 
discontent  has  been  noticeable  for  more  than  a 
decade.  Yet  in  spite  of  every  form  of  opposition, 
the  newer  subjects  of  the  course  of  study  persist. 
The  reactionary  has  failed  to  make  any  consid- 
erable headway.  New  aspects  of  training,  even, 
have  been  added  to  the  school's  functions. 

The  latest  conscious  function  of  the  school 

Of  the  new  functions  which  the  school  is  con- 
sciously assuming,  there  is  one  which  promises 
to  be  epoch-making  in  the  development  of  teach- 
ing methods.  The  deliberate  effort  to  teach  chil- 
dren to  study  is  more  than  an  addition  to  the 
school's  tasks ;  it  is  a  change  in  the  emphasis  o£ 

ix 


INTRODUCTION 

school  instruction.  Hitherto  the  teacher  has  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  transmitting  to  the  child  the 
symbols  of  language  and  the  facts  of  knowledge. 
To  teach  the  child  to  read,  to  write,  to  figure  ;  to 
make  him  memorize  the  important  facts  of  his- 
tory, geography,  and  literature,  —  such  were  the 
functions  of  the  elementary  schools  till  within 
recent  years.  Hereafter  the  school  bids  fair  to 
devote  its  best  energies,  not  to  memorization,  but 
to  teaching  the  child  how  to  think,  how  to  direct 
his  own  conduct  intelligently,  how  to  study  with- 
out constant  dependence  on  the  teacher.  In  the 
old  school  the  teacher  did  the  thinking  and  most 
of  the  talking,  while  the  child  did  the  memorizing. 
In  the  new  school  the  child  will  do  the  thinking 
and  most  of  the  talking,  while  the  teacher  will  re- 
strict himself  to  a  thoughtful  stimulation  and  di- 
rection of  the  process. 

Its  effect  on  the  crowded  curricukini 

To  those  who  would  loudly  decry  the  addition 
of  a  new  function  to  the  school,  it  may  be  said 
that  such  an  addition  does  not  imply  a  new  bur- 
den for  the  child  and  the  teacher.  In  the  specific 
case  of  teaching  children  to  study  it  implies  re- 
lief from  the  over-crowding  of  school  life,  rather 
than  further  congestion.  If  a  child  learns  how  to 

X 


INTRODUCTION 

direct  his  observations,  to  read  his  books,  to  or- 
ganize his  facts,  and  to  apply  his  knowledge,  the 
school  is  no  longer  responsible  for  teaching  him 
every  fact  for  which  life  will  call.  He  has  power 
equal  to  his  needs  as  they  confront  him  in  lifft. 
Now  that  he  knows  the  uses  of  his  mind  and  his 
books,  he  can  make  up  any  chance  defect.  His 
days  of  learning  do  not  end  with  graduation  from 
school.  Under  such  conditions  as  these  the 
demand  of  the  course  of  study  will  be  less  for  all 
the  facts  of  a  subject  than  for  the  typical  ones. 
The  independent  qualities  of  mind  required  to 
understand  and  comprehend  them  will  provide 
the  rest. 

Purpose  of  this  monograph 

The  newness  and  the  importance  of  the  move- 
ment for  teaching  children  to  study  require  that 
teachers  and  parents  be  competent  to  supervise 
the  learning  process.  They  will  need  to  know  the 
nature  of  independent  thinking,  its  various  modes, 
the  conditions  favorable  to  its  development,  and 
the  methods  by  which  it  may  be  strengthened  as 
a  personal  power.  The  monograph  here  presented 
will  be  of  large  service  to  all  who  are  interested 
in  the  problem.  It  is  based  upon  extensive  in- 
vestigations of  children's  habits  of  mind  under 

xi 


INTRODUCTION 

classroom  conditions.  It  is  rich  in  suggestions  as 
to  concrete  ways  in  which  pupils  may  be  brought 
to  a  high  degree  of  ability  in  the  self-direction  of 
their  intellectual  inquiries.  It  should,  more  than 
any  other  document  now  in  print,  aid  teachers  in 
their  efforts  to  train  self-reliant  men  and  women. 


THE  NATURE  OF  LOGICAL 
STUDY 


THE  NATURE  OF  LOGICAL 
STUD^^ 

I.   The  universal  nrc essity  for  study 

Through  the  whole  course  of  our  lives  we  are  con- 
fronted with  situations  the  successful  mastery  of 
which  compels  mental  effort.  Whether  the  tasks 
laid  upon  us  are  assigned  in  school  or  outside  of 
school,  and  whether  we  wish  to  do  so  or  not,  we 
must  struggle  mentally.  In  the  sense  that  it  gives 
us  frequent  occasion  to  study,  life  itself  may  be 
called  a  school.  In  this  school  all  are  enrolled, 
from  the  youngest  child  to  the  wisest  philosopher. 
Whittier  indicated  a  few  of  the  out-of-school  les- 
sons in  his  poem,  "The  Barefoot  Boy"  :  — 

"  Knowledge  never  learned  of  schools, 
Of  the  wild  bee's  morning  chase, 
Of  the  wild-flower's  time  and  place, 
Flight  of  fowl  and  habitude 
Of  the  tenants  of  the  wood; 
How  the  tortoise  bears  his  shell, 
How  the  woodchuck  digs  his  cell, 
And  the  ground-mole  sinks  his  well ; 
I 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

How  the  robin  feeds  her  young, 
How  the  oriole's  nest  is  hung; 
Where  the  whitest  lilies  blow, 
Where  the  freshest  berries  grow, 
Where  the  ground-nut  trails  its  vine, 
Where  the  wood-grape's  clusters  shine ; 
Of  the  black  wasp's  cunning  way, 
Mason  of  his  walls  of  clay, 
And  the  architectural  plans 
Of  gray  hornet  artisans  !  " 

Some  thousands  of  years  ago  a  number  of  prob- 
lems in  the  form  of  a  series  of  questions  were 
proposed  which  the  scientists  and  philosophers 
have  not  yet  worked  out  to  a  final  conclusion. 
The  series  begins  thus :  "  Where  wast  thou  when 
I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth  ?  declare,  if 
thou  hast  understanding.  Who  hath  laid  the 
measures  thereof,  if  thou  knowest  .-*  or  who  hath 
stretched  the  line  upon  it .-'  "  ^ 

The  present  age  is  full  of  problems,  some  of 
them  inherited,  and  some  peculiar  to  itself.  We 
find  people  occupied  in  determining  how  to  reach 
the  north  pole,  how  to  navigate  the  air,  how  to 
prevent  and  cure  diseases,  how  to  earn  a  living, 
how  to  keep  expenditures  within  the  bounds  of 
one's  income,  how  to  train  and  educate  children, 
how  to  square  conduct  with  ideals,  and  how  to 

*  Job  xxxviii. 
2 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

solve  innumerable  other  puzzling  questions  of 
varying  importance. 

2.   The  inadequacy  of  ijtstincts  to  solve  problems 

Because  human  beings  are  not  born  with  a  full 
set  of  fixed  instincts  which  control  their  activities 
in  every  circumstance  when  action  is  required,  it 
is  clear  that  people  must  often  think  about  what 
they  do.  They  must  determine  how  they  shall  act 
and  what  associations  of  ideas  they  shall  make. 
For  example,  there  is  no  instinct  which  will  carry 
us  inevitably  into  our  life-work,  nor  which,  when 
we  have  chosen  our  careers,  will  determine  the 
means  by  which  we  shall  pursue  them  success- 
fully. Neither  does  instinct  settle  the  general 
question  as  to  whether  honesty  or  dishonesty  is 
better  on  the  whole,  or  which  of  the  two  is  better 
in  some  particular  case.  We  are  all  compelled  to 
be  students  since  we  cannot  dismiss  our  problems 
at  will  and  lead  that  careless  existence  which  is 
something  less  than  real  living. 

3.   The  need  of  learning  how  to  study 

Among  the  subjects  of  study  with  which  people 
might  profitably  occupy  themselves,  there  is  one 
of  great  importance  which,  as  yet,  has  received 
little   consideration,  and  that  is  the  process  of 

3 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

studying  itself.  Unless  by  nature  we  study  in  the 
right  way,  we  must  either  be  taught  to  do  so,  or 
else  there  will  be  waste  of  energy,  loss  of  time, 
and  sometimes  either  incorrect  results,  or  no  re- 
sults at  all.  Investigation  shows  that  neither  chil- 
dren nor  adults  naturally  study  as  they  should. 
The  right  method  must  be  learned  in  some  way, 
if  it  is  acquired  at  all.  Individuals  must  either 
work  out  a  method  for  themselves,  more  or  less 
consciously,  or  they  must  be  taught  how  to  study 
by  others  who  have  already  learned. 

4.    The  nature  of  study 

We  are  confronted,  then,  by  these  two  condi- 
tions :  (i)  that  all  people  have  occasion  to  study, 
and  (2)  that  people  on  the  whole  do  not  study  as 
well  as  they  should.  If  we  attempt  to  meet  the 
situation  by  teaching  people  how  to  study,  we  at 
once  find  that  we  must  be  acquainted  with  the 
nature  of  the  process  before  we  can  teach  it.  We 
need  to  know  the  basis  of  it  and  the  various  steps 
involved  in  it  before  we  can  train  others  in  its  use. 
This  is  the  problem  which  confronts  parents  and 
teachers,  since  they  are  the  ones  who  must  teach 
children  how  to  study,  and  it  is  for  parents  and 
teachers  that  this  book  is  mainly  intended. 

First  of  all,  some  definition  of  the  term  study  is 

4 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

necessary  in  order  that  misunderstanding  may  be 
avoided  and  that  we  may  know  our  problem  defi- 
nitely. Studying  in  its  highest  sense  is  the  pro- 
cess of  assimilating  knowledge,  of  reorganizing 
experience.  As  ordinarily  employed,  the  term 
studying  often  means  much  less  than  this,  and 
includes  any  mental  activity  directed  towards  the 
accomplishment  of  some  end,  whether  that  end 
be  the  memorizing  of  facts  in  a  geography  lesson, 
the  learning  of  a  story  in  reading,  or  the  master- 
ing of  a  list  of  words  in  spelling.  In  this  com- 
mon usage  of  the  word  it  includes  the  mind's 
activity  that  is  directed  towards  the  acquisition 
of  ideas,  whether  these  ideas  become  an  organic 
part  of  knowledge  or  not.  Learning  dates  in  his- 
tory, and  committing  poems  and  definitions  to 
memory  do  not  always  involve  the  assimilation  of 
knowledge,  yet  teachers  call  the  effort  to  accom- 
plish these  tasks  by  the  same  name  that  is  ap- 
plied to  the  mental  efforts  of  a  philosopher  who 
is  engaged  upon  some  weighty  problem.  The  two 
kinds  of  studying  are  quite  different.  The  one  is 
more  mechanical  than  the  other  and  results  largely 
in  accretion  of  facts.  The  other  is  organic  and  re- 
sults in  rearrangement  and  assimilation  of  ideas  ; 
in  short,  it  involves  thinking.  It  is  this  latter  form 
of  mental  activity,  which  is  generally  acknow- 

5 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

ledgecl  to  be  of  a  higher  type  than  the  first,  that 
is  the  object  of  investigation  and  discussion  in 
this  book. 

When  teachers  are  asked  what  they  think  study- 
ing is,  many  of  them  say  that  studying  means  to 
imagine,  to  memorize,  to  apperceive,  to  think.  In 
other  words,  they  mean  that  studying  is  a  psy- 
chological process.  But  these  answers  do  not  fur- 
nish much  of  a  clue  to  the  proper  method  of 
teaching  people  how  to  study  because  they  do 
not  show  when  or  how  one  shall  imagine,  mem- 
orize, apperceive,  or  think.  There  must  be  some 
other  explanation  of  the  process  than  an  enu- 
meration of  the  psychological  states  that  may  or 
may  not  be  involved,  if  we  are  to  understand  it 
fully  and  to  be  able  to  teach  it  intelligently.  This 
explanation  we  shall  now  seek. 

5.    TJie  kind  of  thinking  employed  in  studying 

It  has  been  said  that  proper  study  involves 
thinking.  The  thinking  which  is  employed  in 
studying  is  reflective  or  purposive  as  distinguished 
from  spontaneous  thinking.  In  the  latter  sort,  the 
ideas  are  not  controlled  by  the  thinker.  They 
come  and  go  at  random.  But  in  reflective  or  pur- 
posive thinking,  there  is  a  definite  end  in  view 
and  the  ideas  are  selected  and  controlled  so  as  to 

6 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

accomplish  this  end.  When  a  person  gives  the 
rein  to  fancy  and  lets  his  thoughts  wander  where 
they  will,  his  thinking  is  of  the  spontaneous  kind ; 
but  when  he  sets  himself  to  accomplish  some 
task,  to  solve  a  problem,  or  to  find  the  way  out 
of  some  difificulty,  he  controls  his  thoughts  and 
chooses  or  rejects  the  ideas  which  come  into  con- 
sciousness, taking  as  the  basis  of  his  choice  the 
bearing  which  these  ideas  have  upon  the  end  he 
is  trying  to  reach. 

6.   The  origin  or  source  of  the  problem 

It  is  just  this  consciousness  of  some  end  in  the 
form  of  a  problem  which  causes  the  thinking  and 
governs  its  course.  In  the  determination  of  this 
problem  lies  the  logical  basis  of  study ;  hence  it 
is  important  to  know  whence  and  how  it  is  de- 
rived, and  by  whom  it  must  be  felt  as  a  problem 
if  it  is  to  influence  thought. 

a.  Failure  of  habitual  modes  of  thought  and  action 

Problems  frequently  arise  because  for  some  rea- 
son our  habitual  ways  of  acting  or  thinking  cannot 
be  employed.  An  entirely  new  situation,  or  some 
change  in  an  old  one,  may  break  up  our  usual  way 
of  doing  things,  and  compel  us  to  seek  for  a  plan 
of  action  that  will  meet  the  new  conditions.  A 

7 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

flood,  a  fire,  a  financial  panic,  the  loss  of  some 
tool  or  utensil,  a  blockade  of  the  street-car  sys- 
tem, the  stopping  of  a  watch,  the  increased  cost 
of  foodstuffs,  —  any  one  of  these  may  prove  a 
serious  problem  and  compel  thought  in  order  to 
masterthe  new  situation.  Such  apparent  dilemmas 
arise  frequently  in  connection  with  nature  study, 
geography,  arithmetic,  and  other  school  studies, 
as  well  as  in  connection  with  the  formal  routine 
of  schoolroom  procedure.  For  example,  a  child's 
idea  of  a  desert  is  frequently  found  to  be  that  it 
is  a  place  where  nothing  can  grow.  When  con- 
fronted with  the  statement  of  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain places,  hitherto  deserts,  are  now  very  pro- 
ductive, he  is  face  to  face  with  a  difficulty  which 
should  furnish  him  with  a  valuable  problem.  The 
pupil  who  comes  upon  a  verbal  noun  for  the  first 
time  may  find  that  it  puzzles  him  to  classify  it 
properly  as  a  part  of  speech.  Similarly  in  arith- 
metic, there  are  problems  varying  sufficiently 
from  those  already  mastered  to  cause  the  degree 
of  thought  needed  to  analyze  and  master  them. 

b.    The  7ieed  of  relating  new  knozvledge  to  old 

Sometimes  the  problem  originates  in  the  at- 
tempt to  relate  some  new  fact  to  the  knowledge 
already  possessed,  as  in  the  case  of  the  pupil  and 

8 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

the  verbal  noun  just  referred  to.  The  signifi- 
cance of  the  new  must  be  seen  before  it  is  of  use 
to  the  individual  who  acquires  it.  "  What  is  the 
useof  this  object  or  idea  ?"  "What  is  the  purpose 
of  this.-*"  "What  difference  will  this  make  in 
my  ways  of  doing  or  thinking  if  I  accept  it.?" 
All  such  questions  look  forward  to  purpose  or 
end.  Or,  instead  of  looking  forward  to  see  the 
effects  which  the  new  ideas  will  produce,  one  may 
seek  out  the  cause  or  explanation  of  them  in  pre- 
vious knowledge.  Washington  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  American  army  at  the  time 
of  the  Revolutionary  War.  That  is  the  new  fact 
learned.  Why  was  he  elected  to  that  position  .-* 
With  the  ordinary  class,  this  question  compels  a 
review  of  Washington's  character  and  career  in 
order  to  find  the  reasons  for  his  selection  for  so 
important  a  position.  The  warmer  air  in  a  room 
is  found  near  the  ceiling.  Why  .-*  Frequently  the 
explanation  is  to  be  found  in  ideas  already  pos- 
sessed by  the  observers. 

c.   Conflict  of  ideas 

Sometimes  two  sets  of  ideas  or  lines  of  action 
seem  so  contradictory  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide 
which  is  true  and  therefore  the  one  to  choose.  In 
political  campaigns,  different  speakers  will  advise 

9 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

for  or  against  the  election  of  a  certain  man,  ac- 
cording to  their  political  bias,  and  will  present  on 
one  side  strong  arguments  to  show  that  he  is  in 
every  way  desirable,  and  on  the  other,  will  give 
what  seems  convincing  evidence  that  he  cannot 
safely  be  trusted  with  the  political  office  in  ques- 
tion. Which  side  is  right  ? 

Again,  when  one  is  trying  to  decide  upon  a  plan 
of  action,  arguments  present  themselves  both  for 
and  against  almost  any  course  proposed.  From 
one  point  of  view  it  is  very  desirable  to  follow  a 
certain  plan  of  conduct ;  while,  viewed  from  an- 
other standpoint,  this  same  plan  seems  unwise. 
"  To  be  or  not  to  be.  That  is  the  question."  This 
conflict  of  ideas  extends  to  the  mastery  of  school 
subjects.  When  it  is  a  matter  of  finding  expla- 
nations for  facts  observed  in  science  lessons,  of 
selecting  the  right  method  of  solving  some  prob- 
lem in  arithmetic,  of  determining  the  right  way  to 
dispose  of  some  part  of  a  sentence  in  grammatical 
analysis,  of  making  the  correct  interpretation  of 
the  thought  of  some  author  in  the  study  of  lit- 
erature, the  opportunities  for  conflicts  are  nu- 
merous. There  is  frequent  occasion  for  the 
explanation  and  reconciliation  of  apparent  oppo- 
sites. 


lO 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

d.  Cariosity  as  a  source  of  problems 

A  prolific  source  of  problems,  whether  in  school 
or  out  of  it,  is  curiosity.  We  wonder  why,  or  hozv, 
or  what,  and  reach  out  in  other  directions  for 
more  knowledge.  This  curiosity  may  be  of  an  idle, 
fleeting  kind,  which,  left  to  itself,  would  result  in 
little  effort  and  progress.  It  may  be  of  a  primi- 
tive nature,  not  being  based  upon  previous  know- 
ledge, A  teacher  appeals  to  primitive  curiosity 
when  he  leads  his  class  to  desire  to  hear  a  story 
they  have  never  heard  before,  or  to  see  some- 
thing new.  He  arouses  expectation  and  desire 
which  are  directed  towards  unknown  objects. 
Rightly  valued  and  employed,  however,  curiosity 
may  be  made  a  valuable  agent  in  education.  In- 
telligent curiosity,  which  is  based  upon  partial 
knowledge,  which  reaches  out  to  some  definite 
end,  and  which  leads  to  some  adequate  method 
of  attainment  of  that  end,  cannot  be  overestimated 
as  a  means  of  development  and  training.  Conse- 
quently, the  suppression  of  curiosity  just  because 
it  is  curiosity,  or  the  rejection  of  a  method  just 
because  it  appeals  to  curiosity,  is  short-sighted. 
The  appeal  to  curiosity  is  justifiable,  but  it  should 
lead  to  some  intelligent  end,  and  not  remain  upon 
the  level  of  mere  idle  wonder.  A  teacher  may 

II 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

have  in  view  the  teaching  of  an  important  lesson 
in  some  subject ;  she  may  lead  the  children  to 
approach  it  by  appealing  to  a  curiosity  initially 
connected  with  some  superficial  fact.  The  ex- 
planation of  that  fact  leads  into  the  subject  step 
by  step,  until,  when  the  lesson  period  is  over,  the 
teacher's  aim  is  accomplished.  A  lesson  on  gla- 
ciers may  begin  with  the  observation  of  markings 
on  rocks,  or  the  discovery  of  boulders  in  the  soil. 
The  question  arises,  "  How  did  they  come  to  be 
there  ?  "  and  in  answering  it  the  subject  of  glaciers 
is  taught.  A  comparative  study  of  cotton  and 
wool  might  be  introduced  by  the  question  as  to 
why  wool  was  used  before  cotton  for  making 
cloth.  Similarly  in  other  subjects,  some  fact  may 
be  brought  to  the  attention  which  provokes  the 
curiosity  and  tends  to  direct  thought  into  desired 
channels. 

e.    The  necessity  for  activity 

Not  only  does  the  need  of  knowledge,  appar- 
ently for  its  own  sake,  frequently  give  rise  to 
problems,  but  also  the  need  of  knowledge  for  the 
sake  of  some  activity  which  is  to  be  based  upon 
it  may  become  the  source  of  careful  thought. 
What  to  do,  how  to  do,  how  to  improve  the  exe- 
cution of  some  process,  —  these  are  problems  fre- 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

quently  met,  and  their  solution  often  includes 
the  physical  expression  of  the  theory  evolved. 
Drawing,  painting,  manual  training,  physical  edu- 
cation, games,  and  all  other  subjects  involving 
bodily  activity  provide  problems  of  this  kind. 
Drill  for  rapidity  and  accuracy  in  arithmetic  or 
geography  calls  for  the  same  sort  of  treatment ; 
that  is,  knowledge  of  the  process,  and  repeated  and 
intelligent  exercise  in  its  use.  In  all  these  situa- 
tions involving  physical  activity,  thinking  is  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  cause  of  the  difficulty,  to 
select  the  means  to  overcome  it,  and  to  judge  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  latter  when  they  are  em- 
ployed. They  are  therefore  to  be  classed  as 
thought-provoking  situations,  as  sources  of  prob- 
lems. 

f .  Feeling  as  a  source  of  problems 

The  value  of  feeling  as  a  spur  to  the  discov- 
ery of  problems  should  not  be  overlooked  nor 
lightly  estimated.  As  already  shown,  curiosity 
leads  to  the  recognition  of  limitations  both  of 
knowledge  and  of  skill,  and  so  brings  to  con- 
sciousness a  tension  in  experience  which  leads  to 
study.  The  negative  side  of  the  importance  of 
feeling  has  often  been  recognized  by  teachers  in 
inducing  pupils  to  work  in  school.  They  threaten 

13 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

various  unpleasant  consequences  which  will  be 
visited  upon  those  who  do  not  complete  their 
work  in  a  certain  manner,  or  before  a  specified 
time.  The  pupils,  in  order  to  avoid  these  conse- 
quences, bend  their  unwilling  energies  to  their 
work  and  strive  to  master  it.  There  are  many 
instinctive  feelings,  both  pleasant  and  unplea- 
sant, which  find  their  outlet  in  ways  which  demand 
either  new  knowledge  or  some  change  in  the 
usual  modes  of  activity.  Some  of  these  instincts 
are  sympathy,  sociability,  friendship,  pugnacity, 
emulation,  love  of  praise,  hatred,  jealousy,  envy, 
love  of  self,  and  love  of  physical  activity.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  instinctive  feelings,  there  are  both 
feelings  and  attitudes  which  are  the  result  of 
cultivation.  But  whether  instinctive  or  acquired, 
these  emotive  states  influence  both  the  origin 
and  outcome  of  the  thought-situation  which  con- 
stitutes the  problem  for  study.  Sympathy,  friend- 
ship, envy,  hatred,  love  of  mental  or  physical  oc- 
cupation,— these  statesof  mind,  if  strong  enough, 
seek  appropriate  expression,  and  the  question  of 
ways  and  means  arises.  Or,  if  the  problem  does 
not  arise  in  the  feeling  itself,  but  is  accompanied 
by  a  strong  feeling  of  some  kind,  the  energy  put 
forth  to  accomplish  this  end  is  influenced.  If  a 
boy  is  sure  that  something  in  grammar  or  arith- 

14 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

metic  is  worth  having,  and  that  it  bears  upon 
some  felt  need,  whether  of  his  own  or  of  the  so- 
ciety in  which  he  is  interested,  he  will  put  forth 
more  intense  and  continuous  effort  than  he  other- 
wise would.  When  there  is  an  accompaniment  of 
pleasant  feeling  of  some  sort,  the  fatigue  is  felt 
less  than  when  the  problem  is  regarded  as  a  use- 
less task. 

7.   TJie  aim  of  study 

Whether  the  occasion  for  thought  lies  in  the 
need  of  knowledge  or  of  activity,  or  in  the  neces- 
sity for  expressing  some  emotive  state,  the  aim  is 
to  readjust  experience  so  that  tension  or  friction 
shall  disappear  and  harmony  prevail.  Each  spe- 
cific situation  presents  its  own  peculiar  incentive 
to  thought  and  furnishes  the  occasion  for  its  ex- 
ercise. It  is  clear  that  the  thinking  thus  occa- 
sioned cannot  be  of  the  spontaneous  kind,  but 
must  be  selective,  purposive  in  its  nature.  Its 
course,  too,  is  not  complete  until  the  validity  of 
its  results  has  been  tested  in  some  way.  Conclu- 
sions and  theories  must  be  tried  by  further  expe- 
rience before  their  validity  can  be  affirmed  posi- 
tively. When,  however,  their  use  has  become 
habitual  so  that  they  have  reached  the  mechani- 
cal stage  of  application,  they  present  no  further 

15 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

aim  to  thought,  and  the  problem  is  regarded  as 
solved ;  that  is,  the  studying  is  completed. 

8.    Thinking,  memor'ising,  and  Jiab it-forming 

In  this  connection,  the  relation  between  think- 
ing and  memorizing,  and  thinking  and  habit-for- 
mation should  be  noted.  In  thinking,  ideas  are 
associated  according  to  their  meaning,  and  when 
the  process  is  ended,  memorizing  is  at  least  par- 
tially accomplished,  and  that,  too,  in  its  best  form. 
Reviewing  the  associations  thus  established  com- 
pletes the  process.  /This  is  rational  memorizing 
as  distinguished  from  that  which  is  purely  me- 
chanical. In  habit-forming,  thinking  may  be  very 
prominent  during  the  first  stages.  The  form  of 
activity  to  be  learned,  the  way  of  responding  to 
a  certain  situation  must  sometimes  be  chosen  as 
the  result  of  reflection,  and  progress  in  efficiency 
must  be  watched  with  care  until  the  mind  is  freed 
from  conscious  oversight  of  the  process.  Learn- 
ing long  division  is  a  typical  form  of  habit  based 
upon  thinking.  Each  step  is  thought  through 
carefully,  and  then  thoughtful  repetition  brings 
mechanical  accuracy. 


i6 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

9.   The  relation  of  the  problem  to  the  person  who 

is  to  study 

It  is  self-evident  that  in  normal  conditions  the 
tension,  the  lack  of  harmony,  or  want  of  com- 
pleteness must  be  within  the  experience  of  the 
person  or  persons  who  are  to  do  the  thinking, 
since  the  thinking  arises  from  personal  motives. 
A  thing  is  of  interest  and  worth  doing,  and 
demands  to  be  done  because  in  some  way  it 
affects  our  own  welfare  and  the  equilibrium 
of  our  ideas.  Professor  James,  in  discussing  in- 
terest, says  :  "  You  will  understand  this  abstract 
statement  easily  if  I  take  the  most  frequent  of 
concrete  examples  —  the  interest  which  things 
borrow  from  their  connection  with  our  own  per- 
sonal welfare.  The  most  naively  interesting  object-*^ 
to  a  man  is  his  own  personal  self  and  its  fortunes. 
We  accordingly  see  that  the  moment  a  thing  be- 
comes connected  with  the  fortunes  of  the  self,  it 
forthwith  becomes  an  interesting  thing.  Lend 
the  child  his  books,  pencils,  and  other  apparatus  ; 
then  give  them  to  him,  make  them  his  own,  and 
notice  the  new  light  with  which  they  instantly 
shine  in  his  eyes.  He  takes  a  new  kind  of  care  of 
them  altogether.  In  natural  life  all  the  drudgery 
of  a  man's  business  or  profession,  intolerable  in 

17 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

itself,  is  shot  through  with  engrossing  signifi- 
cance because  he  knows  it  to  be  associated  with 
his  personal  fortunes."  ^  If  the  problem  is  to  have 
interest,  and  is  to  be  a  motive  power  to  the  child, 
it  must  grow  out  of  his  own  experience,  some 
situation  in  relation  to  himself,  otherwise  no 
genuine  thinking  will  result. 

For  a  teacher  in  the  elementary  schools  to  as- 
sign a  lesson  without  first  preparing  the  class  so 
that  the  pupils  go  to  their  work  with  a  definite 
problem  in  view,  and  that  problem  one  which 
touches  them  vitally,  one  which  they  have  some 
interest  in  accomplishing,  is  to  invite  mechanical 
memorizing,  and  that,  as  has  been  said,  is  not 
study  in  the  higher  sense  because  it  is  not  the 
assimilation  of  knowledge.  When  the  teacher 
gives  the  problem  to  the  class,  which  is  usually 
the  case  when  there  is  any  aim  present  at  all,  the 
pupils  may  have  a  motive  for  thoughtful  work 
and  they  may  not.  It  depends  upon  the  extent 
to  which  they  recognize  the  problem  as  valid  for 
them,  as  involving  their  own  needs,  as  possessing 
personal  interest,  as  presenting  a  situation  which 
they  accept  as  theirs.  Thoughtful  study  will  de- 
pend upon  their  appropriation  of  the  problem  as 
given  by  the  teacher.  But  if  the  teacher  can  so 

1  James,  Talks  to  Teachers,  pp.  94,  95. 
18 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

direct  the  experience  of  his  pupils  that  this  prob- 
lem arises  in  their  own  consciousness  of  need, 
then  it  is  felt  to  be  theirs  and  the  situation  is 
most  favorable  for  thinking. 

lo.    The  need  of  dcjiniteness  in  the  aim 

Another  point  of  importance  to  note  in  regard 
to  the  problem  is  the  fact  that  it  should  be  as 
clearly  defined  as  possible  before  its  solution  is 
undertaken.  To  be  aware  that  there  is  a  crisis  or 
tension  in  experience  is  one  thing ;  to  have  ana- 
lyzed the  situation  so  as  to  see  just  where  the 
difficulties  lie  is  quite  another  ;  and  to  determine 
possible  modes  of  accomplishing  the  solution  is 
still  another.  It  is  as  if  a  person,  who  had  seen  a 
long  pendulum  set  swinging  in  a  north  and  south 
direction,  should  discover  after  several  hours  that 
the  record  shows  a  change  in  direction,  and  being 
puzzled,  should  ask,  not  "  Why  does  it  swing  }  " 
because  he  saw  it  set  in  motion,  but  "Why,  hav- 
ing been  started  to  swing  in  one  direction,  does 
it  now  swing  in  another?  "  Probably  several  an- 
swers suggest  themselves,  some  to  be  rejected 
at  once  as  manifestly  contrary  to  fact  and  conse- 
quently impossible.  Only  those  hypotheses  are 
accepted  tentatively  for  investigation  which  show 
some  possibility  offurnishingan  adequate  solution. 

19 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

It  may  be  necessary  to  look  into  the  nature 
of  the  problem  itself  before  a  solution  is  sought. 
Analysis  is  employed  to  discover  its  meaning  and 
its  implications  ;  and  reflection,  reading,  investi- 
gation may  be  required  to  make  clear  what  is  to 
be  done,  and  the  ways  by  which  the  solution  is 
to  be  attempted.  This  process  of  defining  the 
problem  and  formulating  hypotheses  for  its  solu- 
tion may  require  a  very  short  time,  or  it  may  oc- 
cupy an  extended  period.  Children's  guesses  as 
to  what  things  are,  or  why  things  are  so  and  not 
otherwise,  are  simply  childish  hypotheses  in- 
tended to  meet  natural  situations.  The  trouble 
with  their  studying  is  that  they  frequently  end 
their  mental  efforts  with  the  mere  formulation  of 
their  problems,  rather  than  accept  such  formu- 
lations as  starting  points  on  the  way  to  positive 
knowledge.  The  clear  understanding  of  the  prob- 
lem furnishes  the  criterion  for  the  acceptance  or 
rejection  of  material,  and  for  its  organization.  The 
keener  the  individual's  sense  of  need,  and  the 
more  intense  his  desire  to  acquire  a  certain  body 
of  knowledge,  the  clearer  his  statement  of  the 
problem  will  probably  be,  and  the  more  definite 
his  demand  for  what  he  wants. 


20 


NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

II.  Recog7iition  of  the  problem  the  first  factor  in 
logical  stiidy 

This  recognition  of  a  problem  is  a  factor  in 
proper  study,  that  is,  in  study  in  the  sense  in 
which  we  are  here  considering  it ;  and  since  it 
precedes  the  other  steps,  it  may  be  called  the 
first  factor  in  study.  The  problem  must  origi- 
nate within  the  experience  of  the  students,  or  be 
appropriated  by  them  in  order  to  arouse  thought, 
and  it  must  be  defined  clearly  in  order  to  furnish 
a  definite  guide  to  thought. 

General  Summary 

The  points  presented  thus  far  are  as  follows :  (i ) 
The  necessity  for  study  is  universal,  as  is  also 
the  need  of  being  taught  to  study  properly.  (2) 
Studying,  in  its  higher  meaning,  is  mental  ac- 
tivity directed  towards  the  assimilation  of  ideas, 
the  reorganization  of  experience.  (3)  Proper  study 
involves  purposive  thinking,  since  it  is  thinking 
that  is  directed  toward  some  end.  (4)  Back  of 
the  psychological  steps  involved  in  studying  is 
the  logical  basis  of  the  process.  This  is  the  ten- 
sion in  experience  which  constitutes  the  aim  or 
purpose  of  thinking,  and  furnishes  the  criterion 
for  the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  ideas  in  theat- 

21 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

tempt  to  readjust  experience.  (5)  The  recognition 
of  a  problem  is  the  first  factor  in  proper  study. 
(6)  This  problem  must  be  felt  as  such  by  those 
who  are  to  study,  or  else  the  motive  and  guide 
for  thought  are  lacking.  (7)  In  order  that  the 
thinking  may  be  accurate,  the  problem  must  be 
clearly  defined  in  the  mind  of  the  person  who  is 
to  do  the  thinking.  Its  requirements  must  be 
plainly  perceived,  and  some  hypothesis  formed  as 
a  tentative  explanation.  This  hypothesis  deter- 
mines the  direction  which  the  solution  of  the 
problem  will  take.  It  should  conform  to  known 
facts.  It  should  have  some  reasonable  basis. 

Note. —  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  the  ideas  in  regard 
to  the  thought-situation  presented  in  this  chapter,  see 
Studies  in  Logical  Theory,  by  Professor  John  Dewey. 


THE  NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE 

STUDY 


II 

THE  NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE 

STUDY 

I.    The  distmction  between  inductive  and  deduc- 
tive study 

The  difference  between  inductive  and  deductive 
study  is  the  same  as  the  difference  which  ex- 
ists between  induction  and  deduction  whenever 
they  are  employed.  When  a  person  studies  de- 
ductively he  seeks  to  solve  his  difficulties  or 
satisfy  troublesome  situations  by  employing  prin- 
ciples, rules,  or  some  other  form  of  generalized 
knowledge  which  he  already  possesses.  In  induc- 
tive study,  on  the  contrary,  the  generalization, 
whether  it  be  definition,  rule,  or  principle,  must 
be  discovered  by  the  student  before  he  can  apply 
it  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  upon  which  he  is 
engaged.  This  latter  form  of  study  always  origi- 
nates in  a  relatively  concrete  situation  and  tends 
towards  the  formation  of  some  general  idea  or 
concept  which  will  explain  the  problem  that  set 
the  thinking  process  in  motion,  so  to  speak.  As 

25 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

will  be  shown  in  the  following  chapter,  deductiv^e 
study  may  begin  either  with  the  data  or  with  some 
generalization.  Inductive  study  may  begin  with 
data  or  with  an  untried  hypothesis.  It  cannot 
begin  with  a  logical  generalization  or  concept, 
since  these  are  the  result  of  the  inductive  process 
itself  and  therefore  cannot  be  the  starting  point. 

2.  Collecting  data  a  factor  in  inductive  study 

When  in  the  course  of  experience  such  a  prob- 
lem as  has  been  described  in  the  preceding  chap- 
ter becomes  a  part  of  consciousness,  it  controls 
the  nature  of  the  mental  process  which  succeeds 
it,  unless  it  is  inhibited  from  so  doing.  One  of 
the  most  prominent  aspects  of  this  process  is  the 
gathering  of  material  bearing  upon  the  problem 
in  hand.  This  collecting  of  data  is  a  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  study,  for  through  its  agency  we 
are  furnished  the  means  whereby  we  may  prove, 
amend,  or  reject  the  hypotheses  formulated  for 
the  solution  of  the  problem,  and  arrive  at  more 
definite  theories. 

The  material  brought  together  for  these  pur- 
poses may  be  drawn  from  several  sources.  It  may 
be  a  part  of  previous  experience  that  is  recalled. 
Information  may  be  gained  from  others  by  in-  , 
quiry   or   through   reading.     It   may  be  gained 

26 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

through    the  processes  of  experimentation  and 
observation. 

a.  Memory  a  source  of  data 

The  data  culled  by  memory  out  of  past  experi- 
ence possess  varying  degrees  of  value.  Even 
though  the  ideas  relating  to  the  new  problem  were 
originally  gained  by  means  of  direct  observation, 
they  may  be  incomplete  because  the  present  prob- 
lem was  not  in  existence  at  the  time  the  observa- 
tions were  made,  and  so  exercised  no  influence 
upon  them.  In  consequence,  the  ideas  lack  full- 
ness and  clearness  and  are  not  to  be  trusted  en- 
tirely. Loss  of  time  and  the  presence  of  other 
mental  states  tend  to  weaken  ideas,  however  com- 
plete and  clear  they  may  have  been  originally.  In 
looking  over  their  old  letters  or  diaries,  people 
sometimes  find  that  their  memories  of  past  events 
have  changed  radically  from  the  record  made  at 
the  time  the  events  occurred.  Furthermore,  the 
very  attempt  to  recall  past  experiences  in  the 
light  of  a  present  problem  favors  the  activity  of 
the  imagination,  so  that  ideas  are  not  recalled 
exactly  as  they  were.  Changes  are  made,  some- 
times quite  unintentionally  and  unconsciously, 
30  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  recollection 
ends  and  imagination  begins.  In  spite,  however, 

27 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

of  all  these  drawbacks  to  memory  as  a  source  of 
data,  the  past  must  be  searched  frequently  to 
discover  what  contribution  it  can  make  to  pre- 
sent crises  in  experience  ;  but  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  scrutinize  the  ideas  thus  obtained  to 
see  whether  they  are  correct  and  complete.  The 
following  instance  will  show  what  is  meant  by 
incomplete  observations  and  the  interference  of 
the  imagination.  When  asked  what  becomes  of 
the  blossom  of  the  dandelion,  the  students  in  sev- 
eral classes  tried  to  recall  their  observations  of 
that  flower.  All  remembered  the  flower  in  bloom. 
Some  remembered  that  the  flower  closes  after 
blooming,  but  some  had  never  noticed  that  fact, 
and  some  had  forgotten  it.  All  remembered  the 
fluffy  white  head  that  appeared  later.  Not  more 
than  one  or  two  had  noticed  what  becomes  of  the 
blossom.  In  every  class,  several  ventured  there- 
ply  that  the  yellow  flower  turns  into  the  fluffy 
white  ball,  —  an  imaginative  reply  built  upon  in- 
complete observation. 

b.  Group-experience  a  source  of  data 

When  memory  fails  to  furnish  the  data  neces- 
sary to  solve  the  problem  in  hand,  the  individual 
may  try  to  make  up  the  lack  by  referring  to  his 
classmates,  to  his  teacher,  if  he  be  a  student  in 

28 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

school,  to  the  members  of  his  family,  or  to  any 
others  who  he  thinks  may  be  in  possession  of 
the  ideas  he  needs.  The  value  of  resorting  to 
group  experience  to  supplement  or  correct  indi- 
vidual experience  should  be  recognized  by  the 
teacher,  and  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  seek 
information  bearing  upon  their  problems  from 
one  another,  from  parents,  or  from  others  who 
may  be  able  to  supply  it. 

In  addition  to  one's  own  knowledge  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  social  group,  the  knowledge 
that  is  stored  in  books  constitutes  an  important 
source  of  data.  In  many  schools  it  is  almost  the 
only  source  utilized,  the  experience  and  know- 
ledge of  the  pupils  and  of  the  society  in  which  they 
live  being  quite  or  almost  disregarded.  The  books 
should  not  be  neglected,  but  teachers  ought  to 
consider  the  question  whether  they  should  always 
be  the  first  resort  in  looking  for  data,  or  whether 
they  should  sometimes  be  left  in  the  background 
until  other  sources  have  been  utilized. 

c.  Experimentation  and  observation  as  sources  of 

data 

In  addition  to  the  means  already  given  for  ob- 
taining ideas  relevant  to  the  problem  to  be  solved, 
the  field  of  experimentation  and  observation  fur- 

29 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

nishes  abundant  data  of  the  greatest  value.  Ob- 
servations madQ /or  a  definite  purpose  zxq  more 
complete  and  accurate  than  mere  casual,  purpose- 
less perceptions.  The  same  may  be  said  of  ex- 
periments. There  is  a  vast  difference  existing 
between  study  about  nature  and  study  ^nature  ; 
between  study  about  machinery  and  study  of 
machinery ;  between  study  about  the  function 
of  adverbs  and  study  of  the  use  of  adverbs  as 
they  occur  in  literature  or  in  spoken  language. 
Experimentation  and  observation  may  not  always 
be  practicable,  but  the  fact  that  the  field  work  in 
geography,  agriculture,  nature  study,  and  arith- 
metic is  increasing  shows  that  more  can  be  done 
than  has  been  done.  The  difficulty  has  been  that 
teachers  have  not  recognized  the  value  of  direct 
observation,  or  have  hesitated  to  make  the  trial 
of  conducting  experimental  or  observation  les- 
sons. In  solving  problems,  the  experimenting  or 
observing  may  be  done  by  one  pupil  or  by  a 
group.  Individual  assignments  and  group  assign- 
ments are  both  valuable,  and  the  pupils  can  work 
out  their  results  and  report  to  the  class.  Oppor- 
tunities for  such  assignments  occur  frequently 
in  connection  with  the  subjects  studied  in  school. 
In  geography,  facts  about  clouds,  winds,  evapora- 
tion, condensation,  and  precipitation  can  readily 

30 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

be  observed.  In  arithmetic,  the  actual  measures 
are  frequently  used  by  pupils.  In  higher  classes, 
tax  receipts,  household  bills,  insurance  policies, 
checks,  and  notes  are  sometimes  found,  but  should 
be  used  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  is  now  the 
case,  since  the  pupils  can  gain  the  facts  about 
them  from  direct  observation.  The  pupils  them- 
selves can  obtain  much  of  the  material  needed, 
and  for  their  own  sakes  they  should  be  encour- 
aged to  secure  and  study  it.  The  wise  limits  of 
the  use  of  observation  and  experimentation  as 
sources  of  data  bearing  upon  problems  to  be  solved 
by  pupils  have  not  yet  been  reached,  and  the 
teachers  of  children  have  a  problem  of  their  own 
in  studying  the  questions  of  when  and  how  they 
should  be  resorted  to  by  pupils  who  are  trying  to 
study  independently. 

d.   The  teacher  as  a  source  of  information 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  gathering 
data  several  questions  are  heard  frequently.  A 
common  one  is,  Shall  the  pupils  always  be  ex- 
pected to  find  the  materials  or  information  needed, 
or  shall  the  teacher  sometimes  tell }  When  the 
cost  in  time  and  effort  would  outweigh  the  bene- 
fit to  the  pupils  either  in  the  knowledge  or  ex- 
perience gained,  or  when  the  sources  of  informa- 

31 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

tion  are  too  difficult  for  the  children  to  master 
with  a  reasonable  amount  of  effort,  the  teacher 
should  give  the  information  to  his  class.  There 
is  a  time  to  tell  and  a  time  to  refrain  from  telling, 
and   the  teacher  must  distinguish  between  the 


two. 


e.  Lectures  versus  books  as  sources  of  data 

Another  question  heard  sometimes  is  in  regard 
to  the  relative  merits  of  lectures  and  text-books 
for  students  who  are  advanced  enough  to  listen 
to  lectures.  Students  sometimes  expect  and  de- 
sire the  instructor  to  pour  out  the  subject  to  them 
in  lecture  form,  and  object  to  being  sent  to  books 
or  other  sources  to  acquire  it  through  their  own 
research.  If  studying  means  the  realization  of  a 
problem  and  reflection  upon  it,  then  books  offer 
a  better  opportunity  for  study  than  do  lectures. 
While  one  stops  to  reflect  upon  some  point  which 
a  speaker  has  made,  he  misses  the  succeeding 
portion  of  the  lecture.  The  case  is  different  with 
a  book.  One's  attention  may  be  challenged  by 
some  problem,  and  during  all  of  the  succeeding 
study  the  text  waits  for  the  student  and  he  is  not 
losing  the  following  thoughts.  When  he  is  ready 
to  go  on,  the  subject  matter  is  there.  An  in- 
structor must  sometimes   resort   to  lectures  to 

32 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

present  material  obtainable  in  no  other  way  or 
for  the  reasons  already  given  above  in  regard  to 
celling  things  to  children,  but  on  the  whole  these 
are  exceptional  cases.  For  pupils  in  the  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools  especially,  the  lecture 
should  be  the  exception  and  by  no  means  the 
rule. 

The  procedure  is  better  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  mental  activity  of  the  class,  when,  instead  of 
the  uninterrupted  lecture,  opportunity  is  given  at 
times  for  inquiry  and  discussion  by  the  students. 
Then  the  lecture,  like  the  book,  halts  until  doubt- 
ful points  are  made  clear,  wrong  ideas  are  cor- 
rected, and  the  material  offered  becomes  part  of 
the  student's  data  with  its  value  duly  recognized. 

f.    The  nse  of  original  sources  by  pupils 

Since  the  use  of  classics  has  superseded  the  old 
school  reader  with  its  fragmentary  selections,  and 
since  it  has  been  found  that  pupils  can  read  and 
enjoy  entire  literary  productions,  the  idea  has 
been  advanced  that  pupils  can  profitably  make 
use  of  source  material  in  the  study  of  history,  in- 
stead of  depending  entirely  upon  the  accounts 
given  in  school  histories.  It  is  doubtless  true  that 
objects  and  places  of  historical  interest,  letters, 
diaries,  reports,  and  other  official  documents,  as 

33 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

well  as  the  literature  of  the  period  under  investiga- 
tion, may  be  used  much  more  extensively  than  they 
now  are,  and  that  the  data  derived  from  such 
sources  may  have  much  greater  value  than  those 
derived  from  the  school  texts.  Pupils  ought  to 
know  from  what  sources  historians  derive  their 
materials  and  how  histories  are  prepared.  They 
should  also  have  practice  in  finding  data  in  origi- 
nal sources  and  in  selecting  and  interpreting  them 
when  found.  The  matter  may  easily  be  carried  to 
the  other  extreme,  however,  and  too  great  a  bur- 
den put  upon  pupils  both  as  regards  the  amount  of 
time  required  and  the  difficulty  of  the  materials 
to  be  used.  Experienced  historians  are  doubtless 
perplexed  at  times  in  determining  the  significance 
of  historical  materials;  therefore  too  much  in  the 
way  of  sifting  evidence  and  drawing  conclusions 
should  not  be  exacted  of  immature  pupils.  Care- 
fully prepared  texts  adapted  to  the  ability  of  the 
class  will  long  have  their  place  in  education  for 
the  reason  that  they  put  data  within  the  reach  of 
the  pupils  in  an  economical  form  ;  but  study  of 
original  sources  should  be  encouraged  within  those 
bounds  of  time  and  ability  which  experience  de- 
termines to  be  proper.  Probably  very  few  teachers 
will  carry  their  use  to  an  extreme  ;  the  error  is 
more  likely  to  be  on  the  side  of  neglecting  them. 

34 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

g.    TJie  fallacy  of  relying  habitually  npoji  one 
source  of  data 

All  the  resources  at  our  command  should  be 
drawn  upon  in  the  effort  to  solve  our  problems, 
and  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  too  great  a  re- 
liance upon  any  one  source  is  unwise.  The  per- 
son who  knows  nothing  but  books  and  the  person 
who  relies  entirely  upon  his  own  observations  are 
both  depriving  themselves  of  material  that  is  valu- 
able ;  so  also  does  the  person  who  is  content  with 
what  he  already  knows  as  the  basis  for  the  solu- 
tion of  problems  which  arise  in  his  life.  There  is 
a  one-sidednessin  such  an  attitude  which  defeats 
the  very  purpose  of  thought,  that  is,  the  discovery 
of  truth. 

h.    The  rejection  of  irrelevant  data 

It  frequently  happens  that  in  this  gathering  of 
data,  many  ideas  enter  consciousness  which  are 
not  relevant  to  the  problem  and  which,  therefore, 
must  be  rejected  ;  but  having  clearly  defined  the 
problem  in  the  beginning,  the  sorting  process  is 
simplified.  We  cannot  prevent  the  obtrusion  of 
these  irrelevant  ideas,  and  it  is  consequently  all 
the  more  necessary  to  learn  to  discriminate  be- 
tween that  which  bears  upon  the  problem  and  that 

35 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

which  does  not,  and  to  accept  or  reject  accord- 
ingly. For  example,  if  a  person  plans  a  trip  to 
Europe,  the  details  of  other  trips  are  recalled  or 
read,  or  they  may  be  suggested  by  friends.  Many 
of  these  ideas  will  doubtless  be  valueless,  because 
they  have  no  bearing  upon  the  problems  of  the 
proposed  trip,  while  some  may  be  very  helpful. 
Unless  the  prospective  traveler  can  sift  out  the 
latter  and  neglect  the  rest,  he  will  probably  do 
some  foolish  things,  and  neglect  certain  wise 
preparations  for  his  journey. 

i.    The  necessity  of  having  data  representative 

A  consideration  of  very  great  importance  in  re- 
gard to  data  is  that  they  must  be  gathered  from 
such  a  number  and  variety  of  individual  instances 
as  to  be  sufficiently  representative,  and  hence  reli- 
able. For  example,  data  in  regard  to  the  physical 
measurements  of  Europeans  would  be  very  unreli- 
able if  obtained  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  nations 
alone,  even  though  many  individuals  in  those  na- 
tions were  measured.  And  similarly,  measure- 
ments to  be  representative  of  the  English  should 
include  all  classes  of  English  and  not  merely  a  se- 
lected group.  Likewise,  to  base  all  study  of  the 
phenomena  of  the  adolescent  period  upon  obser- 
vations limited  to  high  school  students  would  be 

36 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

manifestly  unscientific,  since  high  school  students 
are  a  selected  group.  Only  a  small  per  cent  of 
pupils  entering  the  first  grade  ever  enter  high 
school.  There  is  a  weeding-out  process  all  along 
the  elementary  school  course,  so  that  by  the  time 
the  high  school  is  reached,  those  who  have  sur- 
vived are  a  chosen  few.  Studies  based  upon  them 
alone  would  not  be  truly  representative  of  all 
young  people  of  the  same  age.  It  is  thus  impor- 
tant to  remember,  in  considering  the  reliability 
of  data,  that  they  must  represent  enough  individ- 
uals and  classes  to  make  conclusions  based  upon 
them  valid. 

Summary  :  The  collecting  of  data  is  a  factor  in 
logical  study.  Significant  facts  may  be  brought 
into  consciousness  by  recall,  by  conversation  with 
others,  by  reading,  by  experimenting,  or  by  ob- 
servation. It  is  unwise  to  depend  upon  any  one 
course  exclusively.  These  ideas,  however  gained, 
must  be  judged  on  the  basis  of  their  relevancy  to 
the  problem,  and  accepted  or  rejected  accordingly. 

3.    The  organization  of  ideas  a  factor  in  inductive 

study 

A  very  important  element  in  inductive  study 
is  the  grouping  of  related  ideas.  It  is  a  natural 
process  for  ideas  to  become  associated  in  groups, 

17 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

but  in  purposive  thinking  this  process  must  be 
consciously  aided.  The  ideas  accepted  because 
of  their  bearing  upon  the  problem  are  examined 
to  discover  the  nature  of  their  relations  to  one 
another.  Certain  elements  of  similarity  cause  cer- 
tain ideas  to  form  a  group,  as  when  concepts  are 
formed.  Other  ideas  are  attracted  to  one  another 
because  of  the  similarity  of  the  relationship  which 
they  bear  to  some  other  idea.  The  idea  of  the 
navigation  laws  and  the  idea  of  the  tax  on  tea  are 
very  dissimilar  in  nature;  but  because  they  both 
bear  a  functional  relationship  to  the  idea  of  the 
Revolutionary  War,  they  are  frequently  associ- 
ated in  people's  minds.  Then  there  is  the  causal 
relationship  among  ideas,  when  the  value  of  one 
idea  depends  upon  the  value  of  some  preceding 
idea  or  series  of  ideas.  For  example,  the  idea  of 
weather-of-a-certain-kind  becomes  associated  with 
the  idea  of  wind-blowing-from-a-certain-direction. 
Also,  in  studying  parts  of  speech,  the  idea  of  pro- 
noun becomes  associated  with  the  idea  of  noun 
because  of  their  logical  relationship.  These  re- 
lationships of  similarity,  of  function,  of  cause  and 
effect,  and  of  place  in  a  logical  series,  all  of  which 
are  of  importance  in  the  solution  of  the  problem 
on  hand,  should  be  sought  out  and  established. 
The  natural  tendency  to  associate  must  be  sup- 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

plemented  by  conscious  effort.  Furthermore,  as 
a  matter  of  convenience  and  clearness  in  dealing 
with  ideas,  it  is  frequently  helpful,  especially  with 
a  long  or  difficult  problem  involving  much  mate- 
rial, to  prepare  a  classification  showing  the  main 
topics  arranged  in  order,  with  the  subordinate 
points  properly  grouped  under  them.  In  most  of 
the  situations  which  present  us  with  some  prob- 
lem, no  such  formal  classification  is  necessary, 
but  undoubtedly  much  incoherence  and  lack  of 
logical  treatment  would  be  overcome  by  the  more 
careful  arrangement  of  material  employed  in  at- 
tempting to  work  out  some  hypothesis. 

4.   The  results  of  the  selection  atid  organization 

of  data 

As  a  result  of  the  selection  and  organization 
of  data,  the  hypothesis,  which  in  the  beginning 
was  merely  a  more  or  less  intelligent  guess,  is 
much  more  positive  in  its  nature  and  has  become 
a  theory.  Starting  with  an  hypothesis  based 
merely  upon  the  facts  immediately  connected 
with  the  problem,  there  has  been  a  wide  search 
for  data,  a  careful  elimination  of  the  irrelevant, 
and  an  organization  of  that  which  has  been  found 
to  bear  significantly  upon  the  solution  of  the 
problem.  During  this  process,  the  original  hypo- 

39 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

thesis  may  have  been  altered,  rejected,  or  con- 
firmed as  a  whole  or  only  to  a  certain  extent. 
For  example,  the  pupils  who  in  the  beginning  of 
a  recitation  hazarded  a  guess  as  to  what  a  verb  is, 
ought  to  be  able  to  correct  any  error  in  the  guess 
or  to  show  wherein  they  were  correct  in  their 
statements.  Without  these  two  steps,  collecting 
and  organizing,  the  hypothesis  would  have  re- 
mained a  mere  guess.  Both  hypothesis  and  theory 
must  be  looked  upon  as  tentative  conclusions  and 
must  be  put  to  the  final  test  of  application  before 
being  accepted  as  principles. 

5.   Scientific  doubt  a  factor  in  inductive  study 

In  the  paragraph  on  the  selection  of  data,  it 
was  said  that  data  relevant  to  the  solution  of  the 
problem  should  be  accepted.  This  statement 
must  be  modified  somewhat.  The  data  must  be 
not  only  relevant,  but  reliable.  Whatever  is  ac- 
cepted should  be  accurate.  It  frequently  happens 
that  material  is  presented  in  the  working  out  of 
a  situation  which  would  apparently  meet  every 
difficulty,  but  it  lacks  the  most  necessary  char- 
acteristic,—  that  of  accuracy.  If  the  problem  to 
be  solved  is  of  any  importance  to  the  person  who 
engages  in  its  solution,  it  is  obviously  of  consid- 
erable importance  to  that  person  that  he  accept 

40 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

none  but  reliable  data.  He  must,  then,  scrutinize 
with  care  that  which  he  accepts,  and  his  attitude 
in  general  must  be  that  of  doubt.  The  greater  the 
significance  of  the  problem  the  more  important 
doubt,  scientific  doubt,  becomes  as  a  factor  in 
study,  since  freedom  from  error  depends  largely 
upon  its  existence  and  exercise.  Because  much  of 
the  information  which  is  obtained  from  people, 
whether  through  their  books  or  their  spoken  utter- 
ances, is  based  upon  incorrect  ideas  obtained  from 
others,  upon  faulty  experiments,  imperfect  ob- 
servations, or  false  reasoning,  and  because  it  is 
sometimes  willful  misrepresentation  of  facts  to 
accomplish  some  ulterior  motive,  those  who  avail 
themselves  of  such  sources  without  investigating 
the  truth  of  the  information  imparted  are  fre- 
quently led  into  error.  Ordinary  gossip  and  un- 
principled newspapers  which  are  published  for 
political  purposes  are  extreme  instances  of  un- 
reliable sources  of  information.  But  even  books 
which  are  written  thoughtfully,  with  every  inten- 
tion of  being  accurate,  contain  statements  which 
are  biased  or  untrue.  The  path  of  learning  is 
strewn  with  discarded  ideas,  theories,  hypotheses, 
which  fuller  knowledge  has  shown  to  be  false. 
The  attitude  of  scientific  doubt  which  opposes 
blind  acceptance  of  information  makes  for  ad- 

41 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

vance  in  true  knowledge.  It  should  be  cultivated 
so  as  to  counteract  the  tendency  of  people  in  gen- 
eral, especially  of  young  people  and  of  others  in- 
experienced in  proving  hypotheses  and  in  working 
out  carefully  the  solution  of  problems,  to  accept 
without  question  the  statements  found  in  books, 
papers,  and  magazines,  even  though  they  may 
have  learned  to  exercise  some  discrimination  in 
regard  to  what  they  hear.  There  are  reasons  for 
this  attitude  of  receptivity,  but  they  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  the  continuance  of  unquestion- 
ing belief,  since  that  frequently  leads  to  inaccu- 
rate solutions  of  problems,  and  distorted  views 
of  facts. 

Our  judgment  as  to  the  validity  of  data  of- 
fered by  any  author  is  influenced,  or  should  be 
influenced,  by  his  sources  of  information.  In  sci- 
entific studies,  direct  observation  and  experi- 
mentation are  valued  as  insuring  accuracy.  In 
historical  subjects,  the  use  of  written  evidence, 
or  original  sources,  is  a  basis  for  acceptance  of 
statements.  In  either  case,  if  the  author  has 
gained  his  information  through  hearsay,  there  is 
greater  doubt  of  his  reliability  as  an  authority 
than  if  he  had  employed  research  to  obtain  his 
ideas.  It  is  impossible  to  test  every  statement 
made  by  the  people  to  whom  we  go  for  informa- 

42 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

tion,  and  we  must  therefore  either  reject  all 
statements  which  we  cannot  verify,  or  place  suf- 
ficient confidence  in  the  men  consulted  to  accept 
their  presentations.  There  is  a  place  for  the  ex- 
perts in  various  lines  of  knowledge;  and  when 
men  are  known  to  have  worked  in  a  scientific 
spirit  within  their  respective  fields  of  research, 
that  is  adequate  reason  why  their  results  should 
be  accepted  as  authoritative,  for  the  time  being 
at  least.  There  is  no  loss  of  self-respect  to  the 
student  in  such  acceptance.  As  for  verifying 
data,  there  is  still  sufficient  opportunity  for  that, 
since  not  all  people  are  experts,  and  not  all  the 
problems  are  yet  solved. 

The  reliability  of  data  can  be  tested  in  differ- 
ent ways.  It  may  be  necessary  to  consult  the 
original  sources,  and  the  training  in  this  work, 
spoken  of  in  connection  with  the  collecting  of 
data,  serves  a  valuable  purpose  in  enabling  the 
student  to  verify  evidence  when  its  reliability  is 
in  doubt.  Close  observation  is  sometimes  all  that 
is  necessary ;  or  reflection,  comparison,  and,  in 
some  cases,  experimentation  may  at  times  be 
employed.  We  may  recall  the  results  of  our  own 
experience  and  use  them  as  a  test  for  the  new  ; 
or  we  may  compare  one  man's  statements  with 
those  of  another  in  whose  methods  of  working 

43 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

we  have  confidence,  for  in  weighing  evidence  it 
is  not  so  much  the  men  as  their  methods  of 
working  which  are  to  be  accepted  as  authorita- 
tive. But,  after  all  is  said  and  done,  some  doubt 
is  still  in  place. 

6.    The  tentative  nature  of  hypotheses  and  theories 

It  is  very  important  in  studying  to  recognize 
the  fact  that  both  hypotheses  and  theories  are 
tentative  in  their  nature,  although  they  may  dif- 
fer greatly  in  degree  of  probability.  An  hypo- 
thesis is  a  guess.  It  may  be  more  or  less  scien- 
tific, but  it  is  still  a  guess.  A  theory,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  an  hypothesis  which  has  been 
carried  through  the  stages  of  investigation,  and 
perhaps  experimentation,  and  which  has  been 
modified  or  confirmed  by  the  process.  It  is  based 
upon  the  study  of  data,  and  consequently  pos- 
sesses a  greater  degree  of  certainty. 

Theories  may  vary  in  probability.  Where  data 
are  lacking,  or  where  there  is  grave  doubt  as  to 
their  validity,  the  formation  of  judgment  or  the- 
ory may  be  quite  suspended  for  the  time  being. 
When  evidence  is  ample  in  amount  and  variety 
and  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  warrant  it,  a  very 
positive,  definite  theory  may  be  formed.  Between 
these  two  extremes  are  theories  of  varying  de- 

44 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

grees  of  certainty.  Some  theories  or  judgments, 
therefore,  are  more  tentative  in  nature  than 
others,  but  all  theories  must  be  looked  upon 
as  tentative  until  verified  by  experience.  When 
thus  verified,  they  become  principles,  and  serve 
as  positive  bases  for  decisions  in  future  think- 
ing. 

Whenever  evidence  is  doubtful,  and  yet  is  ac- 
cepted because  of  lack  of  opportunity  for  proving 
it,  or  for  any  other  reason,  the  conclusions  based 
upon  such  data  should  be  regarded  as  hypotheti- 
cal rather  than  theoretical,  until  doubts  of  the 
validity  of  the  data  can  be  removed.  Sometimes 
the  material  used  as  the  basis  for  judgment  is 
accurate,  but  it  is  not  sufficient  because  it  does 
not  meet  every  requirement  of  the  problem.  Con- 
clusions based  upon  incomplete  data  should  also 
be  held  to  be  lacking  in  positiveness.  While  such 
judgments  have  value  in  that  they  furnish  tem- 
porary explanations,  their  incompleteness  should 
be  recognized,  so  that  the  mind  of  the  student 
may  be  left  open  for  further  progress.  Not  to 
recognize  them  as  partial,  as  tentative,  is  to  be- 
come fixed  and  dogmatic  and  to  close  the  door 
to  investigation  and  development.  It  is  equally 
detrimental  to  character  and  learning  to  accept 
judgments   based  upon   doubtful  or  inadequate 

45 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

evidence  as  final  in  their  nature  and  to  make  no 
further  efforts  towards  positive  theories. 

Summary  :  As  a  precaution  by  which  the  way 
to  accuracy  of  results  should  be  hedged,  scientific 
doubt,  or  the  consideration  of  the  accuracy  and 
reliability  of  data,  must  be  valued  as  a  factor  in 
study.  The  data  selected  in  the  process  of  study- 
ing because  of  some  bearing  upon  the  problem 
must  be  known  to  be  reliable  before  there  can  be 
assurance  of  validity  in  the  conclusion.  This  is 
true  of  all  data,  regardless  of  their  source  or  the 
method  by  which  they  are  obtained.  But  even 
most  reliable  data  are  still  properly  subject  to 
doubt.  Both  hypotheses  and  theories  should  be 
regarded  as  tentative  in  their  nature,  and  as  such 
subject  to  further  investigation  and  proof. 

7.    Verification,  or  the  application  of  theory,  a  fac- 
tor in  study 

Since  it  was  the  need  of  readjustment  of  some 
phase  of  experience  which  furnished  the  problem 
for  thought,  the  verification  of  the  theory  formu- 
lated must  consist  in  its  application  to  the  spe- 
cific situation  which  gave  rise  to  the  thought-pro- 
cess, or  to  similar  situations.  The  process  of  logi- 
cal study  is  not  completed  until  the  theory  has 


46 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

been  expressed  in  some  form  so  as  to  test  its  va- 
lidity ;  therefore  expression,  or  the  application  of 
theory,  must  be  regarded  as  an  element  in  study. 

Application  of  theory  is  the  only  means  by 
which  we  can  be  sure  that  the  tension  in  experi- 
ence has  been  removed  and  the  problem  solved. 
Conclusions  which  cannot  stand  this  test  must, 
of  course,  be  revised  or  thrown  aside,  and  those 
which  meet  the  requirements  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  may  be  accepted.  Furthermore,  the  ap- 
plication of  theory,  if  repeated,  tends  towards 
facility  in  its  use,  and  makes  it  more  thoroughly 
a  part  of  the  person  who  thus  employs  it. 

As  was  stated  in  an  earlier  paragraph,  the  ap- 
plication of  theory  may  be  carried  out  very  care- 
fully, close  attention  being  given  both  to  process 
and  results.  If  repeated  frequently  enough  with- 
out too  great  a  lapse  of  time  between  the  appli- 
cations, the  process  reaches  the  mechanical  stage 
and  becomes  a  habit  which  requires  little  or  no 
conscious  effort  for  its  execution.  The  occurrence 
of  any  favorable  opportunity  for  its  use  then  calls 
it  into  activity  unless  it  is  inhibited  for  some  new 
and  special  reason. 

The  testing  of  theories  may  take  the  form  of 
usins:  the  conclusions  as  bases  for  further  think- 


47 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

ing ;  it  may  consist  of  some  act  of  construction, 
the  execution  of  some  design  embodying  the  ideas 
worked  out  in  the  thinking  process ;  or  it  may 
manifest  itself  in  oral  or  written  expression,  in 
some  social  activity,  or  in  some  other  way.  A 
person  does  certain  things  because  of  the  con- 
clusions reached  ;  or  by  an  act  of  will  he  refrains 
from  doing  because  his  thinking  has  led  him  to 
decide  that  it  is  best  not  to  act.  Both  definite 
choice  and  intelligent  action  are  based  upon  the 
mental  product ;  they  test  the  value  of  that  pro- 
duct, and  serve  as  a  corrective  for  careless  or 
inaccurate  thinking. 

In  general,  the  more  genuine  the  problem  has 
been  to  the  individual  who  has  been  studying, 
the  more  vital  will  be  the  conclusion  reached, 
and  the  keener  the  desire  to  put  the  results  into 
practice  as  soon  as  possible  for  the  sake  of  veri- 
fication. In  life  outside  of  school,  the  opportunity 
for  application  is  sometimes  delayed,  but  if  the 
judgments  are  strong  and  clear,  they  will  survive 
delay  and  will  even  force  an  occasion  for  use.  In 
school,  conditions  can  frequently  be  so  arranged 
that  pupils  may  apply  the  results  of  study  im- 
mediately ;  but  even  there  delay  is  sometimes 
inevitable.  This  possibility  of  postponement  is  a 
strong  argument  in  favor  of  making  circumstances 

48 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

as  favorable  as  possible  for  the  formation  of  clear, 
vigorous  judgments. 

Summary :  In  review  of  this  topic,  it  may  be 
said  that  application  in  some  form  constitutes 
the  test  of  theory  and  is  therefore  a  part  of  the 
study  process.  It  is  indispensable  as  a  means  of 
verifying,  correcting,  and  fixing  conclusions,  and 
of  giving  facility  in  their  use.  Application  fre- 
quently follows  the  formulation  of  theory  imme- 
diately, though  it  must  sometimes  await  an  oppor- 
tunity. This  possibility  of  delay  increases  the 
necessity  of  strength  and  clearness  in  judgments. 

8.   The  place  of  memorizing  in  inductive  study 

It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  remember  things 
in  a  certain  wording  or  order,  and  for  that  reason 
memorizing  forms  an  important  element  in  study. 
Whatever  conscious  memorizing  is  done  to  give 
permanence  to  thought,  naturally  follows  the 
completion,  or  at  least  the  partial  completion  of 
the  thinking  process  involved  in  the  working  out 
of  a  situation.  The  very  act  of  establishing  rela- 
tionships of  meaning  among  ideas  tends  to  make 
the  ideas  thus  associated  easy  of  recall,  so  that 
by  the  time  a  certain  problem  has  been  thought 
through  carefully,  the  ideas  involved  are  already 
partially  memorized  in  their  proper  order.  Think- 

49 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

ing  the  steps  over  repeatedly,  reviewing  the  rela- 
tions already  established,  completes  the  memoriz- 
ing process.  Thus  memorizing  is  seen  to  be  a 
very  thoughtful  procedure.  Its  misuse  arises  in 
the  attempt  to  substitute  it  for  thought  instead 
of  basing  it  upon  thought,  and  in  making  it  the 
sole,  or  at  least  the  main  factor  in  study. 

All  memorizing  takes  place  through  the  form- 
ing of  associations  of  some  kind.  These  associa- 
tions may  be  of  a  very  mechanical  and  arbitrary 
nature,  as  when  we  learn  words  in  columns,  or 
commit  sentences  to  memory  with  no  idea  of  their 
meaning.  Such  associations  are  not  the  result  of 
thought.  Mechanical  or  arbitrary  memorizing  has 
its  place  in  school  work,  since  words  must  be 
spelled,  the  principal  parts  of  verbs  learned,  and 
other  matter  of  similar  nature  so  fixed  that  it  may 
be  recalled  readily  when  needed.  This  memoriz- 
ing involves  concentration  of  attention,  the  per- 
ception of  the  correct  order,  and  then  repetition 
to  fix  the  idea  in  the  perceived  order. 

The  memorizing  which  is  a  factor  in  the  higher 
form  of  studying  is  based  upon  associations  of 
meaning  among  the  ideas  involved  in  the  study. 
In  this  case  committing  to  memory  is  based  upon 
analysis.  Similar  or  contrasting  ideas  are  asso- 
ciated, as  are  also  groups  of  ideas  relating  to  some 

50 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

one  subject ;  also  ideas  bearing  the  relation  of 
cause  and  effect,  and  ideas  in  a  logical  series. 
Thus,  if  a  history  lesson  is  to  be  memorized,  it  is 
better  to  memorize  the  important  facts  or  topics 
which  have  been  thought  out  and  associated  than 
it  is  to  learn  to  recite  the  words  glibly  without 
having  had  any  glimpse  into  the  significance  of 
the  ideas  expressed.  In  learning  a  poem,  memo- 
rizing is  usually  well  advanced  when  the  thought 
of  the  poem  has  been  mastered.  In  geography 
the  causal  relations,  and  in  mathematics  the  logi- 
cal order,  may  form  the  basis  of  the  memorizing 
process. 

There  is  a  double  clue  to  the  recall  of  matter 
thus  associated.  One  may  recall  a  mere  fact,  as, 
for  example,  that  there  is  much  rainfall  in  Ireland  ; 
or,  one  may  have  forgotten  what  the  climate  is,  but 
may  be  able  to  repeat  the  reasoning  process  which 
resulted  in  the  statement  about  the  amount  of 
rainfall  in  Ireland,  and  so  may  again  arrive  at  the 
fact.  Some  people,  having  reached  a  conclusion, 
may  remember  it  absolutely  ;  while  it  may  always 
be  necessary  for  others  to  recall  the  reasoning 
process  in  order  to  recall  the  conclusion  reached. 
We  find  thus  three  kinds  of  memorizing  :  first,  the 
memorizing  of  a  purely  arbitrary  order ;  second, 
the  memorizing  of  conclusions  or  statements  based 

51 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

upon  reasoning ;  and  third,  the  memorizing  of  the 
chain  of  reasoning  rather  than  of  the  results  of 
the  reasoning,  so  that  in  recalling,  the  reasoning 
process  must  always  be  repeated  in  order  to  bring 
to  mind  the  statements  the  recall  of  which  is 
desired. 

Summary  :  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that 
while  mechanical  memorizing  has  a  certain  place 
in  school  work,  it  should  be  limited  to  its  own 
legitimate  sphere.  Thoughtful  memorizing  is  of 
a  higher  type  and  should  be  employed  much 
more  extensively  than  it  now  is.  It  is  accom- 
plished by  placing  emphasis  upon  associations  of 
meaning  rather  than  upon  associations  of  place. 
When  employed  consciously  it  follows  the  other 
steps  in  proper  study. 

9.    The  preservation  of  self  in  and  through  study 

The  studying  which  has  been  described  in  the 
preceding  pages  affords  an  opportunity  for  self- 
preservation  and  self -development  which  mechani- 
cal study  can  never  yield.  While  preservation  and 
development  of  the  individuality  are  not  a  sepa- 
rate factor  in  study,  they  should  be  present  in 
study  and  should  be  advanced  to  some  extent,  at 
least,  through  its  agency. 

Human  beings  vary  greatly  in  native  endow- 

52 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

ment.  This  variation  manifests  itself  in  differ- 
ences of  interests,  of  capacities  for  working,  and 
in  ways  of  working.  Any  method  of  study  which 
disregards  individuals,  disregards  also  these  fun- 
damental differences.  It  subordinates  the  human 
being  to  the  subject-matter,  and  aims  for  the  ac- 
quisition of  facts  rather  than  for  the  assimilation 
of  knowledge.  In  proper  study,  the  individuality 
of  the  student  has  a  chance  to  assert  itself.  One 
may  respect  his  own  ideas  if  he  has  tested  them 
and  has  found  that  they  satisfy  the  requirements. 
He  need  not  yield  ready  acceptance  to  all  that  he 
hears  or  reads  or  thinks,  but  may  reject  what  is 
false  or  irrelevant.  He  need  not  lose  his  identity 
or  his  respect  for  himself  even  though  he  does  ac- 
cept the  ideas  of  others,  provided  the  acceptance 
follows  judgment  of  value.  He  need  be  no  one's 
tool  or  blind  follower,  but  may  learn  to  esteem  ideas 
because  of  their  worth  rather  than  because  of  their 
source.  He  needs  to  learn  the  distinction  between 
beliefs  and  convictions,  but  having  the  latter,  he 
may  have  courage  in  the  face  of  any  amount  of  op- 
position. To  be  alone  in  one's  views  is  not  neces- 
sarily to  be  in  error,  while  to  fall  in  with  popular 
views  is  to  place  one's  self  very  frequently  in  the 
wrong.  Even  though  a  number  of  people  should 
start  to  solve  the  same  problem  and  should  employ 

53 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

in  general  the  factors  of  study  here  presented,  their 
procedure  would  vary  from  stage  to  stage  because 
of  differences  which  would  manifest  themselves 
at  every  step. 

A  very  important  element  in  the  development 
and  preservation  of  self  is  the  exercise  of  initia- 
tive ;  the  higher  form  of  study  affords  excellent 
opportunities  for  the  manifestation  of  this  activ- 
ity. The  recognition  of  a  problem,  the  selection 
and  discrimination  of  data,  the  organization  of 
ideas,  the  deferring  of  j  udgment,  the  formulation  of 
theory  or  hypothesis,  the  consideration  of  the 
truth  or  falsity  of  statements,  and  the  final  test- 
ing of  theory  involve  its  use.  The  highest  ideals 
formulated  by  educational  theory  include  the 
right  training  of  whatever  initiative  man  has  been 
endowed  with  ;  hence  so  excellent  an  opportunity 
for  its  proper  use  as  is  furnished  by  logical  study 
should  not  be  neglected. 

Summary  :  In  studying,  it  is  an  important  con- 
sideration to  preserve  and  develop  one's  person- 
ality, to  exercise  initiative,  and  not  to  subordi- 
nate one's  own  ideas  to  those  of  others  without 
due  consideration  ;  otherwise  one  becomes  a  men- 
tal nonentity ;  a  "  passive  recipient,"  and  the 
whole  process  of  study  loses  its  value  as  a  means 
of  training  and  as  a  means  of  arriving  at  truth. 

54 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

General  Swnniary 

The  points  made  thus  far  in  this  chapter  are, 
in  brief,  as  follows  :  (i)  A  second  factor  in  study- 
is  the  gathering  of  data  bearing  upon  the  prob- 
lem. This  material  may  be  gathered  from  many 
sources,  but  only  that  which  bears  a  relation  to  the 
problem  should  be  accepted.  (2)  The  organization 
of  material  into  groups  of  related  ideas  is  a  third 
factor  of  study.  It  tends  to  take  place  naturally, 
but  should  be  carried  on  consciously  with  close 
attention  given  to  the  relationships  established. 
As  the  result  of  the  second  and  third  steps  we 
are  able  to  formulate  a  theory  which  is  intended 
to  satisfy  the  problem.  (3)  A  fourth  factor  in 
study  is  the  exercise  of  scientific  doubt,  or  judg- 
ing as  to  the  soundness  of  statements.  When- 
ever significant  facts  bearing  upon  the  problem 
are  presented  to  consciousness,  their  validity 
should  be  determined  in  order  that  the  theory 
based  upon  such  evidence  may  have  value.  All 
hypotheses  and  theories  must  be  considered  as 
tentative  judgments  until  verified  by  experience. 
The  value  of  such  judgments  is  that  application 
or  further  investigation  is  encouraged,  and  the 
tendency  to  form  positive  judgments  upon  a 
slight  or  faulty  basis  is  discouraged.  (4)  In  order 

55 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

to  verify  the  conclusions  reached  in  the  process 
of  logical  thinking,  a  fifth  factor  in  study  is 
needed.  This  is  application,  or  the  execution  of 
theory.  Through  the  use  of  this  factor  of  study 
theories  are  rejected,  corrected,  or  accepted  ac- 
cording as  they  meet  the  conditions  of  the  ori- 
ginal problem  which  gave  rise  to  the  thought 
situation,  or  of  similar  problems.  Through  use, 
also,  the  theory  is  fixed  as  an  element  of  know- 
ledge and  the  expression  becomes  habitual.  (5) 
To  fix  knowledge  in  a  certain  form  memoriz- 
ing is  necessary,  and  this  process,  accordingly, 
makes  a  sixth  factor  in  study.  Thoughtful  mem- 
orizing is  accomplished  in  part  during  the  course 
of  the  thinking  process.  It  is  completed  by  con- 
sciously attending  to  the  relationships  to  be  fixed 
in  mind  and  by  reviewing  them  in  their  logical 
order.  (6)  Throughout  the  process  of  inductive 
study,  there  is  opportunity  for  the  preservation 
and  development  of  the  individuality  of  the  stu- 
dent. This  is  as  it  should  be,  since  training  in 
process  is  fully  as  much  needed  in  life  as  the  ac- 
cumulation of  facts,  though  the  facts  are  not  to 
be  despised.  Inductive  study  calls  for  individual 
effort  and  individual  judgment  and  affords  oppor- 
tunity for  the  exercise  of  initiative.  Training  in 
its  use  is  training  in  the  use  of  native  power  and 

56 


NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

ability  to  the  best  advantage.  Like  results  need 
not  be  expected,  therefore,  in  all  cases,  since 
minds  differ  in  native  endowment,  in  the  nature 
of  the  store  of  knowledge  already  acquired,  in  the 
ways  of  judging  data,  and  in  the  modes  of  making 
application. 


THE  NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE 

STUDY 


Ill 

THE  NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE 

STUDY 

I .  Necessity  of  understanding  the  problem 

In  the  deductive  process  of  studying  there  is 
the  same  need  of  recognition  and  analysis  of  the 
problem  as  in  the  inductive  study.  Without  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  situation,  there  is  no 
criterion  for  the  selection  of  the  theory  or  prin- 
ciple which  is  to  furnish  the  solution,  since  its 
relevancy  is  not  apparent  until  the  problem  has 
been  made  plain. 

2.  Deductive  study  which  begins  with  the  data 

In  making  use  of  theories,  principles,  laws, 
definitions,  or  other  forms  of  general  knowledge 
already  existing  in  the  minds  of  the  students,  two 
kinds  of  problems  arise.  In  one  kind,  the  facts, 
or  data,  are  present  and  call,  not  for  the  formu- 
lation of  a  new  theory,  but  for  the  use  of  one 
which  is  known.  Examples  of  this  form  of  think- 
ing are  seen  in  recognition,  interpretation,  iden- 

6i 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

tification,  and  in  other  uses  of  general  knowledge. 
Effort  in  such  cases  is  directed  towards  identi- 
fying the  facts  or  data  present  in  consciousness 
with  some  group  of  facts  for  which  a  satisfactory- 
theory  already  exists.  Through  this  identification 
we  read  into  the  fact  the  significance  or  meaning 
of  the  principle  which  is  applied  to  it.  The  math- 
ematician who  sees  that  the  facts  given  in  his 
problem  involve  a  certain  principle  or  rule ;  the 
scientist  who  identifies  some  plant  or  animal  as 
belonging  to  some  group  he  already  knows  ;  and 
the  pupil  who  recognizes  some  part  of  speech  as 
a  noun  and  consequently  attributes  to  it  the 
properties  of  nouns,  —  all  these  are  employing 
principles,  theories,  or  classifications  which  they 
have  found  already  existing  in  consciousness  as 
the  result  of  previous  thinking. 

A  very  frequent  opportunity  for  deductive 
study  of  the  kind  just  named  is  found  in  the  di- 
agnosis of  diseases.  The  physician  is  sometimes 
confronted  with  symptoms  which  are  so  pro- 
nounced and  so  characteristic  that  he  recognizes 
them  at  once  as  indicating  a  certain  disease.  At 
other  times,  the  symptoms  are  more  obscure,  or 
exhibit  some  peculiarity,  so  that  the  physician 
must  delay  judgment  until  he  has  been  able  to 
obtain  more  data  by  watching  the  development  of 

62 


NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

the  symptoms.  The  chemist  is  constantly  employ- 
ing this  deductive  process  in  his  analysis  of  com- 
pounds. He  makes  his  examination  to  ascertain 
the  reactions  manifested  by  a  certain  specimen, 
and  then  classifies  it  according  to  the  facts  he 
has  been  able  to  discover,  because,  according  to 
the  science  of  chemistry,  the  reactions  mani- 
fested by  the  specimens  he  has  tested  are  char- 
acteristic of  certain  substances  already  known 
and  named,  and  the  specimen,  therefore,  must 
belong  to  this  class. 

3.    Deductive  study  which  begins  with  general 

knowledge 

In  the  process  of  study  just  described,  the 
thought  may  be  said  to  move  backward  from  the 
specific  facts  to  the  principle  or  general  truth 
underlying  them.  In  the  second  form  of  deduc- 
tive study,  the  movement  is  from  the  principle  to 
the  data.  It  is  because  of  a  knowledge  of  general 
truths  that  one  is  able  to  prophesy,  to  calculate 
and  foretell  results  of  activities  which  have  not 
yet  occurred.  The  architect  who  plans  a  house 
or  the  engineer  who  plans  a  bridge  must  keep 
many  laws  in  mind  as  he  determines  the  particu- 
lars of  his  structure.  The  amount  of  pressure 
exerted,  the  materials  which  will  best  resist  it, 

6; 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

the  most  advantageous  arrangement  of  this  ma- 
terial,—  all  these  and  many  other  details  are 
based  upon  rules  or  laws  which  must  be  observed 
if  the  results  are  to  be  satisfactory.  We  some- 
times hear  of  attempts  being  made  to  forecast 
the  political  career  of  the  United  States,  the 
predictions  being  based  upon  conclusions  drawn 
from  the  study  of  nations  which  have  gone 
through  the  various  stages  of  development  and 
decline.  For  example,  we  are  told  that  a  pro- 
longed period  of  national  prosperity  results  in 
moral  decline,  and  that  the  moral  decline  is  fol- 
lowed by  political  decay.  When  business  is 
highly  prosperous,  certain  social  conditions  are 
pointed  out  as  evidences  of  a  decline  of  the 
moral  tone  of  the  nation,  and  the  warning  note  is 
sounded  that  such  conditions  are  the  forerunners 
of  national  ruin. 

In  the  study  of  geography,  this  form  of  de- 
ductive study  may  be  employed  very  often.  For 
example,  if  the  conditions  governing  the  produc- 
tion of  rice  are  known,  any  country  may  be 
studied  to  see  if  such  conditions  exist  in  it,  and 
the  conclusion  as  to  whether  rice  can  or  cannot 
be  grown  there  can  be  based  upon  such  an  in- 
vestigation. Similarly,  the  conditions  favorable 
to  manufacture  and  commerce  may  be  treated 

64 


NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

with  reference  to  any  city  or  country  and  the 
proper  conclusions  drawn  as  the  result  of  the 
application  of  general  truths  to  particular  in- 
stances. 

4.   General  knowledge  prerequisite  to  deductive 

study 

When  any  new  subject  is  taken  up  by  a  stu- 
dent, he  must  in  some  way  gain  a  knowledge  of 
the  general  laws  or  truths  belonging  to  that 
branch  of  learning  before  he  can  resort  to  de- 
ductive study.  He  cannot  intelligently  employ 
principles  which  he  does  not  possess,  and  as  we 
are  dealing  here  with  thoughtful  study,  we  shall 
limit  the  discussion  to  the  intelligent  use  of  for- 
mulated knowledge.  In  pursuing  such  a  subject 
as  physics,  a  person  cannot  apply  the  law  of  fall- 
ing bodies,  the  law  of  equality  of  action  and  re- 
action, or  the  general  conclusions  in  regard  to 
pulleys  and  levers  until  in  some  way  he  has 
gained  possession  of  them.  Any  subject  must  be 
treated  inductively  until  a  body  of  principles  is 
acquired  for  deductive  use.  Because  of  this  fact, 
each  subject,  however  ancient  it  may  be,  and 
however  long  its  truths  may  have  been  formu- 
lated, is  new  for  each  individual  learner.  Its 
truths  are  fresh  discoveries  for  him,  and  in  mak- 

65 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

ing  these  discoveries  he  is  repeating  history.  He 
may  be  able  to  arrive  at  his  conclusions  without 
the  use  of  illustrative  material  or  experiments, 
but  he  may  be  greatly  aided,  and  the  time  re- 
quired much  reduced,  by  the  use  of  such  mate- 
rial or  processes. 

5.    Using  generalizations  in  related  fields 

When  subjects  are  carefully  related,  or  when 
one  subject  is  a  form  of  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples belonging  to  another,  the  principles  de- 
rived in  one  subject  may  be  carried  over  into  the 
related  one  and  employed  there.  Thus  the  laws 
of  physics  are  employed  in  various  applied  arts, 
such  as  the  different  kinds  of  engineering,  archi- 
tecture, and  hydraulics,  and  it  is  not  necessary 
for  a  student  to  rediscover  them  in  order  to  use 
them.  Having  learned  them  in  physics,  he  can 
employ  them  wherever  necessary.  The  same  is 
true  in  regard  to  applying  the  general  knowledge 
of  chemistry  in  a  subject  like  domestic  science, 
where  the  constituents  of  foods  must  be  known, 
also  the  effects  of  the  various  food  elements. 
Furthermore,  the  preparation  and  preservation 
of  various  kinds  of  foods  directly  involve  the  ap- 
plication of  the  principles  of  chemistry. 


66 


NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

6.   The  study  of  typical  forms 

This  idea  of  carrying  over  principles  or  con- 
clusions from  one  field  to  another  finds  its  appli- 
cation in  the  so-called  "type  study"  of  biology, 
geography,  and  other  subjects.  In  geography  a 
typical  river  system,  mountain  system,  agricul- 
tural district,  commercial  or  manufacturing  city 
is  studied  intensively,  and  the  facts  which  the 
teacher  knows  to  be  characteristic  of  the  various 
classes  represented  are  emphasized  so  that  the 
pupils  get  clear  ideas  of  them.  When  other  moun- 
tains, rivers,  agricultural  areas,  or  cities  are 
studied,  by  analogy  the  pupils  apply  to  them  the 
conclusion  which  they  reached  through  the  in- 
tensive study  of  the  type  form.  The  study  of 
types  is  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  instructor 
to  use  a  shortened  form  of  the  inductive-deduc- 
tive method,  and  it  will  prove  successful  only 
to  the  extent  to  which  the  pupils  are  able  to 
grasp  and  apply  the  features  which  are  gen- 
eral. 

7.   The  use  of  analogy  in  moral  training 

Analogy  is  frequently  employed  in  studying 
those  subjects  which  have  to  do  with  the  moral 


67 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

nature  of  man.  In  this  field  experimentation  may 
be  dangerous  either  physically  or  morally.  The 
burnt  child  dreads  the  fire,  but  to  expose  him 
to  the  risk  of  burning  in  order  that  he  may  ac- 
quire the  dread  may  be  to  expose  him  to  too 
great  a  danger.  One  would  hardly  encourage  a 
pupil  to  be  dishonest  in  order  that  the  advan- 
tages of  honesty  may  be  discovered  ;  or  cause  him 
to  lie  to  teach  him  the  evils  of  untruthfulness.  From 
history,  from  the  surrounding  social  life,  from 
fiction,  and  from  imagined  characters  or  actions, 
materials  for  study  can  be  obtained  which  will 
enable  pupils  to  see  the  truths  which  they  ought 
to  know.  It  may  be  possible  to  obtain  data  by 
observation,  or  they  may  be  brought  out  in  discus- 
sion. The  inductive  process  occupies  a  relatively 
smaller  place  in  those  fields  which  pertain  to  the 
humanities  than  in  the  natural  sciences.  In 
ethics,  in  sociology,  in  religion,  there  is  but  little 
resort  to  experimentation,  and  wisely  so  because 
of  the  great  risk  attending  such  procedure  in 
these  lines,  and  because  both  past  and  present 
afford  abundant  materials  which  can  be  made  the 
basis  of  analogy.  This  form  of  study  is  safer  and 
more  economical  in  various  ways,  and  is  therefore 
to  be  preferred  to  the  experimental  method. 


68 


NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

8.  Doiiht  as  a  source  of  problems 

Doubt  in  some  form  gives  frequent  occasion 
for  the  examination  of  creeds  and  principles. 
Every  realm  of  belief,  whether  ethical,  religious, 
political,  or  scientific,  is  assailed  by  doubt  at  some 
time  or  other,  and  men  are  called  upon  either  to 
defend  their  own  beliefs,  or  to  demonstrate  that 
the  doctrines  of  others  are  false.  The  socialist 
maintains  that  it  would  be  best  for  society  if  gov- 
ernment should  own  and  operate  the  agencies 
for  the  production  and  distribution  of  commodi- 
ties. His  statement  is  called  into  question,  and  he 
tries  to  prove  that  he  is  right.  He  may  also  assail 
his  opponent's  contention  that  individual  owner- 
ship is  best  for  society.  Thus  we  have  the  two 
sides  of  doubt,  — proving  the  truth  of  statements 
and  proving  their  falsity.  Many  a  man,  when  called 
upon  for  proofs,  discovers  that  what  he  has  been 
holding  as  true  has  been  accepted  upon  the  au- 
thority of  others,  and  has  not  been  the  result  of 
his  own  thinking  and  observation.  In  other  words, 
he  has  cherished  a  belief  rather  than  a  convic- 
tion, A  challenge  in  the  form  of  doubt  brings  in- 
vestigation, and  may  result  in  the  confirmation  of 
the  belief  or  in  its  rejection  or  amendment. 

The  student  must  see  his  problem,  in  which- 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

ever  form  it  comes,  and  must  see  what  is  re- 
quired of  him,  whether  it  be  the  application  or 
testing  of  a  principle  already  at  hand,  or  the  dis- 
covery of  the  theory  which  will  furnish  the  pro- 
per solution.  Intelligent  procedure  depends  upon 
the  analysis  and  definition  of  the  problem,  hence 
the  necessity  of  these. 

9.    The  need  of  collecting  data 

In  whatever  form  the  problem  requiring  de- 
ductive study  may  present  itself,  it  will  usually, 
if  not  always,  require  the  collecting  of  data.  In 
case  a  concrete  situation  is  given,  and  the  prin- 
ciple which  will  explain  it  is  sought,  it  frequently 
occurs  that  much  more  needs  to  be  known  about 
the  situation  than  appears  at  first,  before  a  right 
solution  can  be  found.  When  a  man  is  brought 
to  trial  for  having  taken  the  life  of  some  fellow 
man,  it  is  not  enough  for  the  members  of  the  jury 
to  know  merely  the  fact  that  he  has  caused  the 
death  of  some  person.  They  must  know  many  de- 
tails of  the  circumstances  attending  the  commis- 
sion of  the  act  before  they  can  determine  fairly  the 
degree  of  the  prisoner's  guilt,  or,  indeed,  whether 
he  is  guilty  of  murder  at  all.  The  deed  may  have 
been  entirely  accidental ;  or  the  man  who  is  on 
trial  before  the  jury  may  have  acted  in  self-de- 

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NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

fense  when  he  committed  the  act;  or  his  deed 
may  have  been  dehberate  and  willful  murder,  with 
no  extenuating  circumstances.  It  would  not  be  safe 
to  classify  the  act  and  determine  the  punishment 
without  having  learned  enough  about  the  case  to 
decide  intelligently.  This  investigation  means 
gathering  and  weighing  evidence  or  data. 

The  need  of  collecting  data  is  still  more  evi- 
dent when  the  studying  process  begins  with  rules, 
laws,  or  principles,  or  some  other  form  of  gen- 
eralized knowledge,  and  seeks  to  discover  their 
application.  The  scientist  who,  knowing  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  the  culture  of  the  date  palm, 
wishes  to  find  out  if  it  will  thrive  in  the  United 
States,  must  try  to  find  a  place  where  the  neces- 
sary favoring  conditions  are  all  present,  and  where 
no  harmful  element  is  found  to  offset  their  in- 
fluence. The  final  proof  of  the  correctness  of  his 
reasoning  is  the  actual  growth  of  date  palms  in 
the  region  selected.  If  the  scientist  has  taken 
into  his  account  all  of  the  necessary  factors,  he 
will  select  a  favorable  place  and  his  plants  will 
thrive  ;  but  if  he  has  overlooked  some  important 
element,  as  plenty  of  moisture  for  the  roots,  he 
may  plant  his  trees  where  there  is  an  insufficient 
water  supply,  and  his  venture  will  fail. 

In  the  matter  of  doubt,  when  one's  own  beliefs 

71 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

are  assailed,  or  when  one  attacks  the  behefs  or 
statements  of  another,  there  is  much  searching 
for  data  which  shall  serve  to  confirm  one's  own 
view  or  to  confound  that  of  the  opponent.  Evi- 
dence is  much  sought  after  in  all  such  cases 
where  one  does  not  rest  upon  mere  dogmatic 
assertion  of  authority,  as  did  the  learned  doctors, 
who,  instead  of  experimenting  to  discover  if  oil 
will  freeze,  sought  to  find  out  by  referring  to  the 
writings  of  Aristotle. 

lo.   77^1?  sources  of  data 

The  same  means  of  collecting  data  may  be  em- 
ployed in  deductive  study  as  in  inductive,  and  it 
is  therefore  not  necessary  to  enlarge  upon  them 
here,  as  they  have  already  been  explained.  Briefly 
stated,  they  are  observation,  experimentation, 
memory,  imagination,  reading,  and  consultation 
with  others.  All  of  these  may  be  resorted  to  in 
solving  problems  by  the  process  of  deductive 
study.  It  will  frequently  be  necessary  to  collect 
data,  but  the  sources  employed  will  vary  with  the 
nature  of  the  problem  involved.  Unless  one  knows 
the  problem  and  is  familiar  with  the  sources  of 
materials  available  for  the  students  who  are  at- 
tempting to  solve  it,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down 
specific  directions  for  particular  cases.    Some- 

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NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

times  experimentation  must  be  employed  to  de- 
monstrate some  principle ;  sometimes  books  must 
be  searched  for  principles,  or  for  facts  illustrat- 
insf  them  ;  sometimes  the  information  desired  is 
best  gained  from  classmates,  teachers,  or  people 
outside  of  school.  The  nature  of  the  problem 
will  control  largely  or  entirely  the  method  of 
collecting  data,  and  as  problems  vary,  so  also  will 
the  sources  employed  vary. 

II.    The  organization  of  ideas  a  factor  in  deduc- 
tive study 

Grouping  together  ideas  which  relate  to  one 
part  of  a  subject  or  topic,  and  then  arranging 
such  groups  in  the  order  of  dependence,  whether 
logical  or  psychological,  gives  clearness  to  the 
whole  subject,  and  is  a  great  convenience  in 
working  with  ideas,  and  in  memorizing  matter. 
The  lawyer  or  debater  frequently  arranges  his 
arguments  in  the  way  first  described.  He  first 
makes  his  general  statement,  and  then  his  various 
points  in  explaining  and  sustaining  it.  He  is  thus 
enabled  to  give  an  orderly  presentation  of  his 
material,  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  audience  may 
get  the  proposition  and  the  main  points  in  the 
argument.  Sermons  are  often  arranged  accord- 
ing to  this  same  plan.  The  minister  announces 

73 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

a  text  which  is  a  statement  in  general  terms,  and 
then  takes  up  the  argument  and  application  under 
several  heads.  A  careful  listener  can  get  these 
main  points,  and  from  them  can  afterward  re- 
trace the  course  of  the  lecture,  argument,  or 
sermon. 

Similar  organization  is  sometimes  possible  and 
helpful  in  deductive  study,  which  makes  use  of 
investigation,  experimentation,  reading,  or  other 
sources.  A  problem  may  be  so  simple  as  not  to 
require  it,  but  there  are  times  when  it  is  neces- 
sary and  helpful,  and  therefore  pupils  should  have 
practice  in  using  it. 

1 2.  Judgijig  the  soundness  of  statements  or  the 
adeq7iacy  of  a  theory  a  necessary  factor  in  de- 
dtictive  study 

In  deductive  as  in  inductive  study  there  is  oc- 
casion for  the  examination  of  data  to  determine 
their  accuracy.  Whenever  statements  are  em- 
ployed as  a  means  of  arriving  at  a  conclusion,  or 
of  demonstrating  one  already  reached,  there  is 
occasion  for  judging  their  soundness.  One  will 
not  always  doubt  the  truth  of  the  evidence  sub- 
mitted, yet  there  are  times  when  doubt  should 
be  present,  and  when  statements  should  be  care- 
fully sifted  to  determine  their  rehability. 

74 


NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

In  deductive  study,  the  theory,  also,  must  un- 
dergo criticism,  as  we  must  judge  of  its  applica- 
bility, its  adequacy  to  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
A  theory  or  principle  may  be  relevant  but  not 
adequate,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  dis- 
criminate between  that  which  is  sufficient  to  fur- 
nish the  desired  solution  and  that  which  is  not. 

13.  Suspension  of  jjidgment  an  element  in  de- 
ductive study 

Sometimes  a  final  judgment  as  to  the  theory  or 
principle  must  be  deferred,  either  because  the 
problem  itself  has  not  been  completely  analyzed, 
or  because  no  adequate  theory  has  been  formu- 
lated, or  because  we  are  not  able  to  find  the  right 
theory.  We  must  then  either  accept  a  judgment 
or  classification  tentatively,  or  we  must  try  to  re- 
move the  difficulty  which  has  prevented  the  de- 
finite acceptance  of  a  solution  as  adequate  and 
final.  This  may  be  done  by  further  study  of  the 
conditions  of  the  problem  itself,  by  an  inductive 
study  of  the  theory,  or  by  further  search  for  a 
theory  which  has  already  been  formulated. 

14.   The  testing  of  theory  in  deductive  study 

The  test  by  which  the  adequacy  of  a  theory  is 
determined  is  its  application  to  the  situation  which 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

caused  the  search  for  the  theory.  As  long  as  theo- 
ries are  never  appHed  to  problems,  it  matters  little 
which  ones  are  selected;  but  little  progress  is 
made  by  this  plan.  The  more  genuine  and  vital 
the  problem,  the  greater  the  need  of  the  applica- 
tion of  whatever  theory  is  selected  after  careful 
examination.  Thus  the  chemist  or  physician  who 
attempts  to  produce  a  serum  for  tetanus  or  rabies, 
proceeds  upon  certain  principles  believed  to  have 
been  established  through  the  discovery  of  other 
serums.  Having  obtained  the  serums  according 
to  principle,  he  usually  applies  them  first  to  some 
animals  to  test  their  efficacy.  The  bridge-builder 
or  the  boat-builder  who  seeks  to  meet  a  new  or 
peculiar  situation,  not  only  searches  for  his  theory 
or  principle,  but  frequently  tests  it  in  the  manu- 
facture of  a  model  before  using  it  in  the  actual 
situation.  The  final  test,  however,  is  its  use  in  the 
connection  for  which  it  was  intended. 

15.    Memorizing  in  connection    with  deductive 

study 

Memorizing  based  upon  thought-associations, 
or  associations  of  meanings,  is  present  in  deduc- 
tive study  also.  It  may  not  always  be  as  promi- 
nent or  as  necessary  as  in  inductive  study,  since 
frequently  the  results  of  previous  memorizing  are 

76 


NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

employed  and  thus  the  process  is  tested.  In  the 
new  work,  the  relation  of  the  data  giving  rise  to 
the  problem  to  the  theory  which  solves  it  may 
call  for  memorizing  to  fix  the  relation  for  future 
use.  Teachers  often  neglect  this  part  of  the  school 
work.  The  pupils  learn  to  reason  out  situations 
in  arithmetic  or  geography,  and  often  let  the  mat- 
ter rest  there.  There  are  many  results  which 
should  be  kept  permanently,  and  therefore  the 
associations  should  be  made  strong  enough  to  en- 
dure. After  all  the  reasoning,  there  must  be  a 
residuum  of  things  known  exactly  and  perma- 
nently. Memorizing,  then,  cannot  safely  be  omit- 
ted. 

l6.  Self-expression  and  self-development  through 
deductive  study 

Whenever  there  is  a  genuine  problem  present 
which  is  felt  as  such  by  the  student,  and  when- 
ever the  factors  of  logical  study  are  employed 
freely  by  him,  there  is  opportunity  for  the  expres- 
sion and  development  of  self.  It  requires  initiative 
in  deductive  study  as  well  as  in  inductive  to  discover 
the  problem,  see  its  implications  and  conditions, 
and  find  and  test  the  solution.  Where,  however, 
the  process  is  purely  formal,  and  is  carried  on 
under  the  direction  and  dictation  of  another,  the 

17 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

higher  thinking  powers  of  the  student  remain  in- 
active, and  consequently  undeveloped.  Such  for- 
mal use  of  theory  is  seen  in  the  application  of 
rules,  principles,  or  definitions  in  mathematics, 
grammar,  or  physics,  when  the  pupils  have  little 
idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  problems  and  possibly 
none  at  all  of  the  rules,  definitions,  and  principles. 
Carefully  conducted  experiments  have  shown 
that  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  are  capable 
of  using  all  of  the  factors  of  logical  study.  Obser- 
vations have  shown  that  they  are  given  little  op- 
portunity to  use  them.  The  teacher  is  the  most 
active  element  in  the  schoolroom,  and  she  usually 
controls  much  or  all  of  the  work.  She  herself 
knows  very  little  about  thoughtful  study,  and 
consequently  she  cannot  give  much  intelligent 
training  in  its  use.  The  result  of  such  a  situation 
is  that  the  child  is  controlled  instead  of  being 
trained  and  directed.  He  depends  upon  the 
teacher  to  a  large  extent  and  is  afraid  to  exercise 
initiative  for  fear  of  consequences ;  or  else  he  avoids 
it  because  it  involves  too  much  energy,  or  because 
he  distrusts  his  own  efforts.  Any  one  who  is  a 
frequent  visitor  in  the  schoolroom  will  testify  that 
the  pupils  either  are  given  little  opportunity  to 
exercise  initiative,  or  else  that  there  is  a  lack  of 
training  in  its  use.  Like  other  activities,  it  needs 

7S 


NATURE  OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

training,  and  thoughtful  study  affords  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  for  such  training. 

General  Stimmary 

In  conclusion  we  may  say  that  the  factors  pre- 
sent in  inductive  study  are  present  in  deductive 
study  also,  though  they  may  be  modified  to  suit 
the  changed  purpose  of  the  study,  which  is  to 
apply  principles  rather  than  to  formulate  theory. 


THE  RELATION  OF  RATIONAL 
STUDY  TO  TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 


IV 

THE  RELATION  OF  RATIONAL 
STUDY  TO  TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

In  the  preceding  chapters,  the  steps  or  factors 
in  logical  study,  both  inductive  and  deductive, 
have  been  described  and  illustrated.  The  discus- 
sion has  been  general  in  its  nature,  as  it  was 
thought  best  to  show  the  broad  significance  of 
study  before  confining  the  attention  to  the  form 
it  takes  under  certain  limitations. 

Schoolroom  conditions  and  traditional  proce- 
dure are  the  limitations  which  hedge  in  the  pupils 
in  the  years  devoted  to  so-called  study.  In  the 
ordinary  schoolroom  we  find  a  group  of  pupils 
of  nearly  the  same  age,  pursuing  the  same  subjects 
from  the  same  books,  and  with  freedom  of  physi- 
cal activity  at  least  greatly  restricted.  The  ques- 
tion is  pertinent  here  as  to  whether  the  factors 
present  in  purely  logical  study  are  possible  in  the 
study  of  the  text-book.  Some  reflection  upon  the 
nature  of  text-book  work  shows  that  to  a  large 
extent  these  factors  may  be  employed,  though  in 
a  modified  form. 

83 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

I.   Consciousness  of  the  author  s  problem  or  pur- 
pose the  first  factor  in  text-book  study 

First  of  all,  in  systematic  text-book  study  as  in 
other  study,  there  is  the  necessity  of  some  prob- 
lem. In  ordinary  experience  aside  from  books, 
the  problem  is  found  in  some  life-situation,  but  in 
the  book  the  author  provides  it,  and  the  student 
must  find  and  appropriate  it.  An  author  may 
have  written  a  chapter  of  psychology  to  show 
the  nature,  kinds,  and  uses  of  interest ;  of  geo- 
graphy to  show  how  the  mountains  of  Europe 
affect  the  climate  and  drainage  of  that  conti- 
nent ;  or  of  history  to  show  how  New  England 
came  to  be  settled  by  the  Puritans.  The  problem 
was  present  in  the  author's  mind  and  was  worked 
out  by  him  in  some  section  of  his  book.  The 
student  must  rediscover  it,  and  appropriate  it  as 
his  own  in  order  that  he  may  benefit  by  his  study. 
His  questions  to  himself  must  be:  "What  was 
the  author's  purpose  in  writing  this?"  "What 
is  the  main  thought  of  this  section?"  "What 
underlying  idea  runs  all  through  this  chapter, 
connecting  the  various  parts?"  "What  impor- 
tant question  is  answered  in  this  paragraph  or 
chapter?"  "What  would  be  a  good  heading  for 
this  paragraph  ? "  Through  some  such  self-ques- 

84 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

tioning  and  self-directing  of  thought,  the  author's 
purpose  or  problem  is  revealed,  whether  in  geo- 
graphy, history,  grammar,  arithmetic,  or  some 
other  subject. 

It  will  frequently  be  the  case  that  the  teacher 
will  bring  the  class  to  a  consciousness  of  the 
problem  during  the  lesson  assignment ;  it  may  be 
with  the  help  of  the  book,  it  may  be  without  the 
book.  Then  with  curiosity  whetted,  the  class 
studies  the  book  for  further  information  in  regard 
to  the  problem  and  its  solution.  As  pupils  grow 
older  and  more  capable  of  independent  work, 
they  should  assume  more  independence  in  find- 
ing the  problem  from  the  text  itself.  Less  pre- 
sentation by  the  teacher  should  be  necessary. 

2.   GatJierijig  data  a  factor  in  text-book  sttidy 

When  the  author's  aim  has  been  grasped,  the 
gathering  of  data  is  necessary  in  text-book  study, 
just  as  it  is  in  any  situation  where  there  is  a  prob- 
lem to  solve.  The  author  supplies  much  of  the 
material  that  is  to  be  used  when  a  text  is  studied, 
and  the  student  must  look  upon  the  book  as  data 
presented  with  the  idea  of  solving  the  author's 
problem.  The  student  is  not  limited  to  the  au- 
thor's text,  however,  but  may  draw  upon  his  own 
experience  and  upon  his  imagination.   He  may 

85 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

read  books,  papers,  and  magazines,  and  may  talk 
with  people  who  are  informed  in  regard  to  the  sub- 
ject he  is  studying.  He  may  perform  experiments 
and  make  observations.  In  any  or  all  of  these  ways 
he  may  supplement  the  author's  text  and  add 
largely  to  the  material  bearing  upon  his  problem. 
The  criterion  for  acceptance  here,  as  in  other 
study,  is  the  relevancy  of  the  facts  to  the  problem. 
That  which  is  irrelevant  should  be  rejected,  and 
only  the  relevant  accepted.  If,  for  example,  the 
problem  is,  "  How  the  mineral  products  of  the 
Western  states  have  influenced  the  development 
of  those  states,"  then  students  engaged  upon  such 
a  problem  may  neglect  all  the  statements  made 
by  the  author  which  do  not  bear  upon  it,  but  they 
must  sift  out  and  accept  that  which  contributes 
to  its  solution. 

It  may  be  urged  by  some  that  this  gathering 
of  data  will  consume  more  time  than  the  class 
has  at  its  disposal.  However,  rejecting  irrelevant 
matter  saves  time;  and  the  examining  of  other 
sources  than  the  book  can  be  divided  among  the 
members  of  the  class  so  that  the  labor  is  divided. 
The  interest  arising  from  the  presence  of  a  prob- 
lem will  also  quicken  the  efforts  of  the  pupils  and 
so  save  time. 


86 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

3.    TJie  organizatio7i  of  ideas  in  text-book  stiidy 

The  process  of  organizing  ideas  differs  in  text- 
book study  from  the  organizing  that  is  done 
when  the  student  must  seek  and  accept  data 
which  have  not  already  been  organized.  Text- 
books present  a  certain  form  of  organization,  and 
the  student  must  discover  it  in  order  to  see  fully 
the  author's  treatment  of  his  problem.  This  in- 
cludes finding  the  main  points  in  the  chapter 
or  paragraph  involved  in  the  problem,  and  in 
grouping  the  related  minor  points  about  these 
main  points.  This  organization  of  the  text  may 
be  extended  or  otherwise  changed  by  the  use  of 
supplementary  material  which  the  student  has 
gathered  and  accepted  as  bearing  upon  the  au- 
thor's problem.  An  example  of  organization  of 
text-book  material  is  the  following  :  Examination 
of  a  section  in  a  text-book  in  United  States  his- 
tory shows  the  author's  problem  to  be  the  ex- 
planation of  how  slavery  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States.  Further  study  shows  a  number 
of  details  which  group  themselves  into  a  few 
points : — 

How  slavery  was  introduced  into  the  United  States. 

1.  Reasons  for  its  introduction. 

2.  The  introduction  of  negroes  as  slaves. 

87 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

a.  Time. 

b.  Place. 

c.  Agency. 

3.  The  introduction  of  indentured  servants. 

a.  Reason  for  practice. 

b.  Character  of  these  servants. 

c.  The  end  of  white  slavery  in  America. 

Such  organization  not  only  shows  the  author's 
mode  of  treatment  of  his  subject,  but  it  also  en- 
ables the  student  to  handle  his  material  more 
conveniently.  It  brings  out  the  main  points 
clearly,  and  about  these  can  be  grouped  the 
needed  details.  The  irrelevant  and  the  unimpor- 
tant are  weeded  out.  As  a  result  of  organization, 
the  author's  theory  as  to  the  solution  of  his  prob- 
lem should  have  been  grasped  by  the  person 
who  is  studying.  The  act  of  making  such  an  out- 
line involves  a  partial  memorizing.  The  teacher 
will  probably  find  that  it  does  not  require  as  long 
a  time  to  memorize  such  an  outline  as  it  does  to 
try  to  learn  the  words  of  the  text  verbatim  in 
the  old  way,  and  the  value  of  the  result  is 
greater. 

4.     The   necessity  of  defa'red  judgment  in  the 
sttidy  of  books 

The  same  caution  which  is  necessary  in  logi- 
cal study  in  general,  in  regard  to  accepting  hy- 

^2> 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

potheses  and  theories  as  provisional  rather  than 
final  conclusions,  is  necessary  also  in  the  study 
of  books.  The  same  conservatism,  also,  in  form- 
ing such  theories  is  necessary.  Forming  hasty 
judgments  and  jumping  at  conclusions  are  of 
frequent  enough  occurrence  in  dealing  with  lit- 
erature, history,  and  other  such  subjects,  to  show 
the  need  of  greater  discretion  in  this  direction. 
It  frequently  happens  that  judgments  of  per- 
sons, or  actions,  or  of  events,  are  formed  before 
the  situation  has  been  sufficiently  worked  out  by 
the  author  to  make  the  formulation  of  theory 
possible.  To  anticipate  the  course  of  history  so 
as  to  introduce  the  results  of  a  movement  at  the 
place  where  its  beginning  is  described  is  not 
always  feasible  or  advisable,  and  final  judgment 
of  its  significance  should  be  deferred  until  ade- 
quate knowledge  has  been  acquired.  Any  other 
judgments  must  be  regarded  as  mere  hypotheses, 
and  pupils  should  learn  to  regard  them  as  guides 
and  not  as  proved  conclusions.  Final  judgment 
of  character  in  literature  or  history  must  await 
the  development  of  events  sufficiently  to  warrant 
it.  The  results  of  some  treaties  and  laws  are  so 
far-reaching  that  immediate  judgments  as  to 
their  value  would  probably  be  erroneous.  Geo- 
graphy, also,  frequently  calls  for  the  use  of  cau- 

89 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

tion  in  drawing  conclusions.  To  judge  of  climate 
on  the  grounds  of  latitude  alone,  and  to  think 
that  because  the  people  of  the  Western  states  are 
far  removed  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  they  are 
therefore  uncultured  and  live  in  a  primitive  way, 
are  manifestly  rash  acts  of  judgment,  yet  such 
judgments  are  not  uncommon.  Further  data 
would  doubtless  cause  the  correction  of  one  hy- 
pothesis and  the  abandonment  of  the  other. 

If  children  are  permitted  to  do  so,  they  fre- 
quently ask  their  teachers  for  reasons  and  expla- 
nations, showing  that  they  are  aware  of  lack  of 
fullness  in  their  books  and  that  they  desire  fur- 
ther data.  Here  again  it  happens  that  the  form- 
ing of  a  positive  theory  must  await  the  right  op- 
portunity for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  In 
the  end,  the  ideas  gathered  may  not  be  sufficient 
to  warrant  the  formulation  of  theory,  and  if  any 
judgment  is  formed  it  must  be  an  hypothesis. 
But  the  elements  of  tentativeness  in  both  hy- 
potheses and  theories  must  not  be  lost  sight  of. 
The  need  of  final  verification  must  always  be 
kept  in  mind. 


90 


TEXTBOOK  STUDY 

5.    The  consideration  of  the  soundness  of  state- 
vients  a  factor  in  the  study  of  a  book 

The  attitude  of  scientific  doubt  wliich  mani- 
fests itself  in  the  consideration  of  the  soundness 
of  statements  and  the  validity  of  data  of  any  kind 
is  quite  as  essential  a  factor  in  text-book  study  as 
in  any  other.  If  it  was  necessary  to  scrutinize 
statements  with  a  critical  eye  when  the  text-book 
was  but  one  of  several  sources  from  which  facts 
were  sought,  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  exercise 
care  when  the  book  becomes  the  main  source  of 
data  bearing  upon  the  problem.  Histories,  gram- 
mars, geographies,  and  other  texts  have  been 
known  to  contain  inaccurate  material,  and  even 
the  truth  is  at  times  so  startling  as  to  cause  a 
challenge  in  the  mind  of  the  readers.  For  exam- 
ple, a  certain  text  in  grammar  gives  the  follow- 
ing definition  of  a  phrase :  "  A  phrase  is  any 
combination  of  words  that  does  not  include  both 
subject  and  predicate."  ^  Then  any  group  of 
words  selected  at  random  might  form  a  phrase, 
if  only  no  subject  and  predicate  are  included. 
This  second  definition  makes  the  weakness  of 
the  first  one  more  clear:  "A  phrase  is  a  group 
of  related  words  without  subject  and  predicate, 

1  Welsh,  Lessons  in  English,  p.  34. 
91 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

and  having  the  use  of  a  single  word."  ^  The  fol- 
lowing statement  in  regard  to  the  Russian  peas- 
ants is  taken  from  a  geography  text-book  pub- 
lished before  the  recent  Russo-Japanese  War  and 
still  in  use  :  "  It  was  not  until  1863  that  serfdom 
was  abolished.  Hence  it  is  no  wonder  that  the 
masses  are  without  education  ;  but  great  pro- 
gress is  now  being  made."  ^  A  certain  text-book 
in  United  States  history,  in  treating  of  the  open- 
ing events  of  the  Civil  War,  says :  "  But  the  at- 
tack on  Fort  Sumter  changed  the  whole  situa- 
tion. Doubt  was  at  an  end  on  both  sides.  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  Arkansas, 
forced  now  to  take  one  side  or  the  other,  soon 
joined  the  Confederacy."^  The  question  might 
well  be  asked,  "  What  was  the  situation  in  the 
Border  states  where  both  sides  were  represented  ? 
Was  all  doubt  ended  there  by  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter  .''  "  Furthermore,  the  statements,  "  We 
are  to  remember  that,  though  the  war  was  caused 
by  slavery,  it  was  not  at  first  about  slavery, 
but  about  secession,"^  and  "The  Southerners 
were  naturally  more  military  than  the  Northern 

1  Webster,  Elements  of  English  Grammar,  p.  39. 

2  The  Werner  Grammar  School  Geography,  Part  i,  p.  244. 

8  Eggleston,  Household  History  of  the  United  States,  p.  310. 
*  Eggleston,  Household  History  of  the  United  States,  p.  311. 

92 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

people,"  *  are  somewhat  startling  to  the  pupils 
who  have  been  taught  up  to  this  time  that  slavery 
was  the  cause  of  the  war  and  have  heard  little 
or  nothing  of  secession,  and  who  have  believed 
the  Northern  soldiers  to  have  been  in  every- 
way equal  to  the  soldiers  of  the  South.  Such 
statements  should  challenge  pupils  to  question 
and  investigate  their  worth.  The  author's  ac- 
counts or  explanations  may  be  compared  with 
one's  own  experience.  His  use  of  sources  and 
his  method  of  treating  problems  need  to  be  con- 
sidered to  determine  whether  he  works  cautiously 
or  is  hasty  in  his  judgments.  It  is  often  worth 
while  to  ask  the  questions,  "  What  is  the  writer's 
authority  for  the  statements  he  makes  .^  "  "Does 
he  base  his  conclusions  upon  observations,  upon 
written  evidence,  or  is  he  relying  upon  hearsay  .''  " 
These  questions  are  frequently  in  order  in  the 
study  of  history,  geography,  and  the  natural  sci- 
ences. Other  books  and  sources  of  information 
may  be  consulted  as  a  means  of  verification  or 
correction.  Caution  is  especially  necessary  if 
magazine  articles  and  newspapers  are  used  as 
texts  in  studying  certain  subjects  or  phases  of 
subjects. 

It  is  not  intended  that  pupils  shall  question 

1  Eggleston,  Household  History  of  the  United  States, -p.  312, 

93 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

everything  they  read  or  hear.  Usually  they  will 
not  need  to  have  doubts  as  to  the  reliability  of 
the  statements  made.  But  the  attitude  of  ready 
acceptance  of  everything  needs  to  be  replaced 
by  the  attitude  of  mind  which  questions  that 
which  seems  out  of  harmony  with  previous  ex- 
perience, which  is  startling  in  its  nature,  which 
seems  to  lack  sufficient  evidence,  or  which  seems 
too  general  in  its  scope.  Such  instances,  and  pos- 
sibly others,  furnish  occasion  for  thought  and 
investigation  as  to  the  validity  of  the  material 
offered.  In  this  respect,  text-book  study  does  not 
differ  from  any  other  study  in  which  data  are 
presented  to  throw  light  upon  some  situation. 
Judgment  as  to  the  soundness  of  statements  is 
usually  necessary,  though  due  credence  should  be 
given  to  the  results  of  the  labors  of  experts  in 
the  several  fields  of  knowledge. 

6.   TJie  need  of  verification  or  the  application  of 
theory  in  the  study  of  the  text-book 

The  use  of  verification  as  a  factor  in  studying 
books  is  frequently  modified  by  the  fact  that  the 
author  makes  his  own  application  of  the  theory 
he  has  advanced.  But  because  the  books  are  text- 
books they  are  limited  as  to  the  amount  of  space 
that  can  be  devoted  to  any  part  of  a  subject ; 

94 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

consequently,  the  space  which  is  given  to  verify- 
ing theories  is  usually  small,  and  the  amount  and 
variety  of  material  presented  for  giving  facility 
in  their  application  are  often  inadequate.  There  is 
much  that  can  and  should  be  done  to  apply  the 
theories,  presented  in  the  books  and  rediscovered 
by  the  pupils,  to  life-situations  in  which  pupils 
participate.  Real  occasions  for  the  use  of  arith- 
metical ideas  and  correct  grammatical  construc- 
tions are  possible,  and  lend  a  vitality  to  the  prin- 
ciples presented  in  the  text-book  as  the  examples 
given  by  the  author  of  the  book  cannot.  All  of 
the  forms  of  expression  described  under  this 
topic  in  the  consideration  of  logical  study  are 
applicable  in  text-book  study,  whether  it  be  oral 
or  written  expression,  constructive  work,  social 
activity,  some  application  to  the  affairs  of  ordi- 
nary life,  or  even  the  use  of  the  theory  as  the 
basis  for  further  thought.  To  test  the  matter,  let 
the  reader  who  has  followed  the  discussion  of 
proper  study  to  this  point  read  Silas  Marner,  some 
play  of  Shakespeare,  a  chapter  in  some  history 
or  other  book  which  contains  thought  material, 
and  make  use  of  the  various  steps  of  study  in  his 
reading.  Let  him  note  the  effects  of  such  effort 
upon  his  idea  of  the  right  way  to  study.  After 
such  a  test,  he  will  be  better  able  to  state  whether 

95 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

he  considers  the  plan  feasible  and  whether  the 
results  are  worth  the  effort.  One  need  only  re- 
cognize the  value  of  application  as  a  factor  in 
higher  study  and  look  for  opportunities  for  em- 
ploying it,  and  frequently  some  appropriate  form 
will  be  found.  As  was  said  in  a  previous  chapter, 
the  time  for  using  the  theory  may  be  delayed 
until  a  favorable  opportunity  arrives,  but  often 
the  verification  may  be  made  as  soon  as  the  theory 
is  clearly  understood.  Strength  and  clearness  of 
the  ideas  are  very  necessary  in  order  that  these 
may  function  when  there  is  an  opportunity  for 
them  to  do  so.  It  must  not  be  overlooked  that 
strong  feehng  associated  with  an  idea  aids  its 
recall  and  adds  to  its  effectiveness  when  recalled. 
A  purely  intellectual  idea  of  a  lie  is  not  hard  to 
gain,  but  if  the  lie  can  be  shown  to  be  stupid, 
cowardly,  and  harmful,  there  is  a  greater  proba- 
bility of  its  being  avoided  because  of  the  feelings 
associated  with  the  idea. 

7.  Memorizing  as  a  factor  in  stndy 

With  ideas  selected  and  associated  through 
the  use  of  the  factors  of  study  already  discussed, 
memorizing  of  the  logical  type  has  been  provided 
for  to  some  extent.  Its  further  use  in  the  study 
of  material    selected  from  text-books  does  not 

96 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

differ  from  the  memorizing  described  under  logi- 
cal study.  Its  use  is  both  possible  and  advisable 
in  such  a  connection.  /But  mechanical  memoriz- 
ing, so  commonly  employed,  is  to  be  avoided,^  In 
thoughtful  study,  either  the  results  of  reasoning 
should  be  memorized,  or  the  chain  of  reasoning 
which  led  to  the  results.  For  example,  after  hav- 
ing discovered  the  rule  for  changing  common 
fractions  to  decimal  fractions,  the  pupils  may 
memorize  the  rule,  or  the  steps  by  which  it  was 
developed. 

8.   Some  phases  of  deductive  study  of  books 

To  any  one  who  is  at  all  acquainted  with  text- 
books, it  must  be  clear  that  there  is  frequent 
occasion  for  deductive  study  in  connection  with 
them.  The  solution  of  problems  in  mathematics, 
parsing  and  sentential  analysis  in  grammar,  the 
explanation  of  geographical  phenomena,  the  in- 
terpretation of  history,  the  consideration  either 
of  form  or  of  thought  in  literature,  the  classifica- 
tions of  science,  —  all  involve  the  calling  up  of  prin- 
ciples, rules,  theories,  or  other  general  forms  of 
knowledge,  and  the  application  of  them  to  con- 
crete instances.  There  is  the  same  need  for  dis- 
covery of  problem,  and  for  analysis  of  data  as  in 
«iny  other  study.  There  is  the  same  need  for  the 

97 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

exercise  of  discrimination  in  the  selection  of  the 
rule  or  principle  which  is  to  be  applied,  or  of  the 
class  to  which  the  individual  is  to  be  assigned.  The 
problems  may  vary  in  the  number  of  steps  of  log- 
ical study  involved,  but  some  of  the  steps  will  be 
present  always,  while  others  may  be  present  at 
times.  There  will  always  be  data  to  be  examined, 
the  problem  to  be  recognized,  and  some  form 
of  general  knowledge  to  be  applied  to  the  data. 
It  may  not  always  be  necessary  to  collect  outside 
data,  to  judge  of  the  validity  of  the  statements 
given,  to  organize  the  material,  to  suspend  judg- 
ment, or  to  memorize.  The  steps  involved  will 
vary  with  the  nature  of  the  problem.  When  the 
proof  of  a  proposition  or  the  application  of  a 
principle  or  rule  is  required,  facts  or  data  must 
be  collected  and  examined  with  reference  to  their 
bearing  upon  the  statement  which  is  to  be  tested. 
Such  examples  are  found  all  through  geometry : 
e.g.  "The  sum  of  the  angles  of  any  triangle  is 
equal  to  two  right  angles."  In  a  similar  way  the 
axioms  in  mathematics  are  tested  :  e.  g.  "  Things 
equal  to  the  same  things  are  equal  to  each  other ;  " 
and  "  If  equals  be  added  to  equals,  the  results 
are  equal."  Some  of  the  questions  found  after 
each  chapter  in  Fiske's  "  History  of  the  United 
States  "  call  for  the  same  kind  of  activity :  e.  g. 

98 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

"  Should  all  things  that  ought  not  to  be  tolerated 
be  forbidden  by  law  ?  "  "  Was  it  right  for  the  New 
Englanders  to  disobey  the  navigation  laws  ? " 
"Is  general  disobedience  of  law  and  authority 
ever  justifiable?"  "Why  have  so  many  people 
come  to  America  to  live,  and  so  few  left  it  to  live 
elsewhere  ? "  In  some  of  the  examples  given, 
proof  of  some  general  statement  is  called  for.  In 
others,  concrete  facts  are  stated,  and  underlying 
principles  which  will  explain  them  are  required. 
In  both  kinds  of  problems,  generalized  knowledge 
already  in  possession  of  the  pupils  is  employed, 
and  hence  the  study  is  deductive. 

The  criticism  has  been  made  that  this  form  of 
logical  study  has  been  over-emphasized  in  school, 
and  that  pupils  have  been  expected  to  apply  gen- 
eral ideas  which  they  do  not  clearly  understand. 
Since  both  inductive  and  deductive  study  are  pos- 
sible in  school  work,  it  may  be  said  in  general 
that  when  pupils  are  found  to  lack  the  general 
knowledge  needed  for  the  solution  of  problems, 
the  inductive  form  of  study  should  be  employed  ; 
but  that  when  the  pupils  possess  the  principles 
needed  for  explanation  or  interpretation,  the  de- 
ductive form  of  study  should  be  used.  The  two 
methods  may  thus  be  used  in  the  same  study  period 
in  connection  with  the  same  lesson,  or  they  may 

99 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

not  thus  occur.  It  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
lesson  and  the  mental  equipment  of  the  pupils 
how  frequently  and  closely  they  are  associated. 

9.   TJie  relation  of  proper  text-book  study  to  ini- 
tiative and  self-development 

Although  the  use  of  books  does  not  afford  the 
same  opportunity  for  the  use  of  one's  own  powers, 
nor  provide  the  same  motives  and  interests  as  the 
study  which  arises  from  life-situations,  where  the 
problems  are  felt  to  be  of  moment,  yet  it  does 
furnish  a  means  for  self-development  and  self- 
expression  if  it  is  rightly  used.  It  is  for  the 
purpose  of  furthering  this  right  use  that  the  ex- 
planations of  this  chapter  have  been  given.  If  one 
would  be  helped  by  the  use  of  books,  he  must  mas- 
ter them  and  not  be  mastered  by  them  ;  that  is, 
he  must  weigh,  judge,  and  test  before  he  accepts 
statements,  or  else  he  will  lose  his  own  individual- 
ity. It  requires  the  exercise  of  initiative  to  dis- 
cover the  problems  in  books,  just  as  it  does  to 
discover  them  in  logical  study  aside  from  books. 
It  requires  it,  also,  to  select  data,  accept,  reject, 
and  organize  them,  and  grasp  the  author's  theory. 
One  of  the  highest  expressions  of  the  self  will  be 
found  in  the  testing  of  statements  and  in  the  re- 
cognition of  judgments  as  tentative  because  of 

100 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

faulty  or  inadequate  data.  And  so,  also,  in  the 
form  of  application  which  the  student  employs, 
there  is  opportunity  for  the  development  of  per- 
sonality, provided  the  student  be  free  to  exercise 
choice  as  to  its  form. 

If  text-book  study  be  limited  to  rote  learning  or 
to  deductive  study,  the  opportunities  for  the  exer- 
cise of  initiative  and  self-expression  are  greatly 
limited.  Since  the  school's  recognized  function  is 
to  further  the  wise  development  of  these  powers 
of  the  pupils,  it  should  not  neglect  so  valuable  an 
agency  as  the  higher  form  of  study  offers.  If  study 
could  be  directed  in  genuine  life-situations  where 
problems  of  real  importance  to  pupils  abound,  the 
opportunities  for  self-expression  and  development 
would  be  most  favorable.  But  text-book  study  is 
not  devoid  of  possibilities  in  this  direction  and 
these  possibilities  should  be  recognized  and  util- 
ized. 

lO.  Are  all  of  the  factors  employed  in  all  study  ? 

Before  leaving  this  discussion  of  the  use  of  sys- 
tematic study  in  connection  with  school  work, 
the  question  should  be  considered  as  to  whether 
all  of  the  factors  of  higher  study  are  necessary  in 
all  study.  The  answer  must  be  a  decided  nega- 
tive. First  of  all,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  first 

lOI 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

chapter,  a  great  deal  of  school  work  does  not  deal 
with  the  assimilation  of  knowledge,  but  with  the 
mastery  of  technique  ;  for  example,  spelling,  me- 
chanical work  in  arithmetic,  and  the  formal  side 
of  reading.  There  the  mechanical  side  prevails 
and  the  readjustment  of  ideas  based  upon  their 
thought-relations  is  not  involved.  In  the  second 
place,  much  of  the  subject-matter  which  does  in- 
volve the  relationship  of  ideas  based  upon  mean- 
ing is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  present  little  of  value 
in  the  way  of  problems.  It  is  intended  to  enter- 
tain, or  to  cultivate  taste  and  sentiment  rather 
than  to  furnish  food  for  thought.  Some  school 
histories,  books  about  nature,  and  a  good  deal  of 
the  reading  matter  and  literature  put  before  pupils 
belong  to  this  class.  They  present  few  logical 
problems  of  value  and  call  for  little  purposive 
thinking.  Whether  they  should  do  so  to  a  greater 
extent  than  is  now  the  case  is  a  question  worthy  of 
consideration,  as  is  also  the  question  as  to  whether 
the  logical  possibilities,  slight  though  they  are, 
should  not  be  more  fully  realized.  Even  in  sub- 
jects or  subject-matter  which  call  for  systematic 
study,  there  are  great  differences  in  the  nature 
and  importance  of  problems  presented  from  time 
to  time.  Not  all  problems  are  worth  the  time  and 
effort  involved  in  the  use  of  all  the  factors  of 

1 02 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

study ;  and  some  problems  may  not  require  the 
use  of  all  these  factors  in  order  to  be  solved  sat- 
isfactorily. Frequently  minor  problems  present 
themselves  during  the  study  of  larger  ones.  It  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  ignore  them  entirely  or 
to  postpone  their  consideration  until  some  other 
time.  If  their  solution  is  indispensable  to  the  main 
problem  in  hand,  then  time  and  attention  must  be 
given  to  them  as  to  other  problems. 

It  may  be  said,  further,  that  some  problems 
may  involve  several  or  all  of  the  factors  of  sys- 
tematic study  and  yet  be  solved  quickly,  while 
other  problems  may  require  a  long  time  for  solu- 
tion, being  taken  up  for  consideration  from  time 
to  time  as  circumstances  determine.  For  some 
reason  the  gathering  of  data  may  be  deferred, 
and  meanwhile  the  problem  may  rest  unsolved ; 
or  delay  may  be  due  to  some  other  cause.  In  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  that  the  length  of  time  spent 
in  studying  problems  varies.  Several  may  be  dis- 
posed of  in  one  study  period,  or  one  may  extend 
through  a  long  period,  being  considered  from 
time  to  time  as  opportunity  offers. 

General  Sufmnary 

The  proper  study  of  text-books  does  not  differ 
from  logical  study,  but  is  identical  with  it.   In 

103 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

studying  books,  the  student  must  discover  the 
author's  problem,  and  must  see  what  data  are  given 
which  bear  upon  it.  There  is  the  same  need  of 
gathering  data,  and  of  testing  and  organizing  them 
that  is  present  when  the  problem  arises  from 
some  experience  aside  from  the  book.  It  is  clear 
that  books  are  not  always  able  to  offer  the  final 
word  in  the  solution  of  problems,  and  that  the 
conclusions  hazarded  by  authors  cannot  always 
be  accepted  without  verification.  In  such  cases, 
judgment  must  be  deferred.  There  is  just  as 
much  need  of  testing  theories  derived  from  the 
study  of  books  as  there  is  of  testing  any  other 
conclusions  in  order  to  give  certainty  and  facility. 
The  study  of  books  calls  for  memorizing,  though 
the  memorizing  employed  should  be  based  upon 
associations  of  meaning  and  not  upon  mere  me- 
chanical relationships.  In  deductive  study,  cau- 
tion must  be  exercised  that  pupils  understand 
the  principles  which  they  are  to  apply.  Such 
text-book  study  as  has  been  here  described  is 
highly  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  per- 
sonality, since  it  calls  for  the  exercise  of  initia- 
tive and  of  all  one's  powers,  instead  of  being  based 
solely  upon  rote  memory.  It  has  been  shown, 
also,  that  while  all  of  the  factors  of  proper  study 
may  be  employed  in  the  study  of  a  text-book  les- 

104 


TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

son,  it  is  not  always  necessary  for  all  of  them  to 
be  present.  The  problem  may  not  require  it,  or 
the  pupils'  ability  may  be  such  that  they  can 
safely  omit  one  or  more  of  the  factors. 


DO  CHILDREN  POSSESS  THE 
ABILITY  TO  STUDY  LOGI- 
CALLY ? 


DO  CHILDREN  POSSESS  THE 
ABILITY  TO  STUDY  LOGI- 
CALLY ? 

I.    The  importance  of  knowing  whether  children 

can  study 

Having  seen  the  nature  of  logical  study  and 
having  followed  the  application  of  its  various 
steps  to  the  mastery  of  a  lesson  in  a  book,  it  is  of 
great  importance  to  know  whether  children  are 
capable  of  studying  in  the  manner  described. 
Can  children  see  the  author's  problem,  or  find 
the  underlying  thought  running  through  a  les- 
son ?  Can  they  collect  material  bearing  upon  this 
problem  ?  Can  they  find  the  important  points  in 
a  chapter,  or  paragraph,  or  other  section,  offering 
a  problem  ?  Can  they  question  statements,  and 
see  discrepancies  in  the  material  presented  ?  Can 
they,  in  general,  employ  the  various  factors  of 
logical  study  ?  If  mechanical  study  is  the  only 
kind  of  which  children  in  the  elementary  schools 

109 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

are  capable,  then  the  whole  discussion  of  study 
down  to  this  point  is  irrelevant  so  far  as  they  are 
concerned. 

2.  Factors  injluencmg  the  preparation  of  the  ex- 
periments to  detet'mine  the  ability  of  pupils  to 
study 

The  attempt  to  find  an  adequate  answer  to  the 
question  in  the  preceding  paragraph  involved  the 
consideration  of  many  serious  difficulties.  The 
grades,  the  number  of  children,  the  location  of 
the  schools,  the  subjects  to  be  used  in  testing, 
the  nature  of  the  exercises,  and  the  manner  of 
conducting  them,  —  all  these  and  various  other 
points  had  to  be  determined  before  the  tests 
could  be  given.  The  situation  was  made  even 
more  complicated  by  the  desire  to  train  part  of 
the  classes  in  systematic  study  after  the  first  tests 
had  been  given,  and  then  to  give  all  pupils,  both 
trained  and  untrained,  a  second  series  similar  to 
the  first,  with  the  purpose  of  finding  out  what 
differences  were  to  be  observed  in  the  results 
obtained  from  the  two  classes  of  pupils. 

3.   The  subject  and  classes  chosen  for  the  tests 

The  subject  of  geography  was  chosen  for  the 
tests,  both  because  it  furnishes  abundant  oppor- 

IIO 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

tunities  for  proper  study,  and  also  because  it  is  a 
subject  which  is  quite  sure  to  be  taught  in  all 
of  the  higher  grades  of  the  elementary  schools. 
History  is  not  taught  so  generally  as  geography, 
and  for  this  reason  was  not  selected  for  the  ex- 
periments. The  ideal  procedure  would  have  been 
to  train  the  pupils  in  the  method  of  study  in 
connection  with  all  of  their  school  subjects,  and 
to  test  them  in  all  of  these ;  but  while  the  teacher 
might  have  trained  them  in  all  branches  offering 
opportunities  for  logical  study,  the  testing  would 
have  been  too  arduous  and  too  time-consuming, 
especially  since  more  than  a  thousand  pupils  were 
tested. 

The  tests  were  given  to  pupils  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  grades  only.  Pupils  in  these  grades  are 
supposed  to  be  able  to  express  themselves  suffi- 
ciently well  in  writing  to  be  able  to  work  upon 
the  material  given.  The  eighth  grade  was  not 
chosen  because  of  the  possibility  of  wishing  to 
give  similar  tests  during  the  following  year,  in 
which  case  the  eighth-grade  pupils  would  not 
have  been  available  because  they  would  have  left 
the  elementary  school. 

In  order  to  make  the  results  as  general  as  pos- 
sible, the  tests  were  given  to  as  many  classes  as 
could  be  obtained  for  the  purpose.  More  than 

III 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

twelve  hundred  pupils  wrote  upon  the  first  series, 
which  was  given  early  in  the  year  1907,  When 
the  second  test  was  given  three  months  later, 
several  classes  dropped  out,  and  the  number  was 
reduced  to  about  eleven  hundred.  In  each  pair 
of  tests,  only  those  results  were  considered  which 
were  obtained  from  pupils  present  in  both  of 
them.  Between  the  time  when  the  first  series  of 
tests  was  given  and  the  time  when  the  second 
one  was  written,  part  of  the  classes  were  trained 
in  the  use  of  the  factors  of  study,  while  the  others 
were  left  without  any  change  in  their  mode  of 
working.  The  second  series  of  tests,  accordingly, 
made  it  possible  not  only  to  compare  each  class's 
record  with  its  former  one,  but  also  to  compare 
the  results  obtained  from  the  trained  classes  with 
those  obtained  from  those  not  trained. 

4.   The  Jiature  of  the  tests 

The  first  test  in  each  series  was  probably  the 
most  difficult.  It  consisted  of  a  short  selection 
from  one  of  the  geography  text-books  and  was  ac- 
companied by  the  following  requirement:  "Here 
is  a  lesson  from  a  book  such  as  you  use  in  class. 
Do  whatever  you  think  you  ought  to  do  in  study- 
ing this  lesson  thoroughly,  and  then  tell  (write 
down)   the  different  things  you  have  done  in 

112 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

studying  it.  Do  not  write  anything  else."  It  was 
hoped  that  the  results  would  show  whether  any 
pupils  were  employing  the  factors  of  logical  study, 
and  to  what  extent  they  were  employing  them. 

In  another  test,  the  pupils  were  given  a  ques- 
tion with  this  direction :  "  Do  not  answer  this 
question,  but  write  down  everything  you  think  you 
ought  to  do  in  finding  the  answer  to  it."  For  the 
first  series  in  the  sixth  grade,  the  question  was, 
"  Why  is  Pittsburg  such  an  important  commercial 
and  manufacturing  city  ?  "  For  the  second  series, 
it  was  the  following  :  "  Tobacco  used  to  be  grown 
almost  entirely  in  the  Southern  States,  but  now 
it  is  grown  extensively  in  the  Northern  States  as 
well.  Why  has  this  change  come  about }"  In  the 
first  series  for  the  seventh  grade  the  question 
was,  "  Why  do  terrible  famines  occur  in  India 
every  few  years  .■'"  In  the  second  series,  the  pu- 
pils were  asked,  "  If  you  were  a  voter  and  a  gov- 
ernor was  to  be  elected  in  your  State,  how  would 
you  decide  which  of  the  candidates  to  vote  for .-' " 

This  test,  like  the  first  one,  instead  of  making 
some  definite  requirement  of  the  pupils,  empha- 
sized the  subjective  side  of  the  problem.  In  the 
first  test  the  pupils  were  to  tell  what  they  had 
done ;  in  this  one  they  were  to  tell  what  they 
would  do.    The  object  was  the  same,  that  is,  to 

113 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

discover  to  what  extent  the  pupils  were  employ- 
ing the  factors  of  logical  study. 

The  last  test  in  each  series  called  directly  for 
systematic  study  of  a  lesson.  It  consisted  of  a  slip 
containing  subject-matter  from  a  text-book,  and 
an  accompanying  slip  containing  the  directions 
and  requirements,  both  slips  being  given  to  the 
pupils  at  the  same  time.  The  pupils  were  to  find 
the  answers  to  the  following  questions,  number- 
ing them  as  the  questions  are  numbered :  — 

1.  What  is  the  subject  of  this  lesson  ? 

2.  Write  a  list  of  the  principal  topics  in  it. 

3.  What  do  you  think  is  the  most  important 
thing  in  this  lesson  ? 

4.  What  are  your  reasons  for  thinking  this  so 
important  ? 

5.  What  other  facts  do  you  know  about  any  of 
these  topics  ? 

6.  What  questions  would  you  ask  in  regard  to 
anything  in  this  lesson  that  is  not  clear  to  you  or 
that  you  would  like  to  know  more  about.'* 

This  test  was  placed  at  the  end  of  the  series,  so 
that  it  might  not  serve  as  a  clue  in  the  writing  of 
any  of  the  other  exercises. 


114 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

5.   The  ability  of  pupils  to  find  what  a  lesson  is 

about 

The  results  of  the  tests  indicatethatwhile  these 
pupils  do  not  find  the  subject  of  the  lesson  to  any 
great  extent  when  studying  without  definite  di- 
rections, they  are  capable  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent of  finding  it  when  they  are  required  to  do  so. 

6.  The  ability  of  pupils  to  organise  subject-matter 

In  judging  of  the  adequacy  of  a  list  of  princi- 
pal topics,  two  questions  were  kept  in  mind  :  Do 
the  topics  cover  the  entire  lesson?  Do  they  in- 
clude the  main  points  only,  or  are  they  too  de- 
tailed ?  Some  pupils  gave  topics  which  were  very 
good  as  far  as  they  went,  but  they  left  out  some 
important  section  of  the  lesson.  For  example,  in 
the  last  test  of  the  second  series,  a  number  of 
children  omitted  to  include  a  topic  which  would 
cover  the  last  paragraph,  the  paragraph  which 
tells  about  the  homes  of  the  different  races,  and 
how  the  homes  of  the  races  are  separated  from 
one  another.  On  the  other  hand,  some  pupils  pre- 
pared a  topic  for  nearly  every  sentence  in  the  les- 
son. Such  lists  as  these  could  not  be  reckoned  as 
adequate  because  they  were  either  too  meagre,  or 
because  they  were  too  detailed  in  nature.  How- 

iiS 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

ever,  even  such  lists  show  some  degree  of  abihty, 
and  taken  into  consideration  with  those  consid- 
ered adequate,  they  show  that  these  children  are 
able,  in  varying  degrees  of  efficiency,  to  analyze 
a  lesson  and  find  the  essential  facts  in  it. 

7.    The  ability  of  pupils  to  exercise  doubt 

On  the  whole,  the  pupils  accepted  the  subject- 
matter  placed  before  them  without  questioning 
its  accuracy.  The  tests  do  not  reveal  any  power 
the  children  in  these  classes  may  possess  of  see- 
ing discrepancies  between  what  they  read  and 
what  they  know.  Whether  they  really  possess  this 
power  and  would  exercise  it  if  permitted  or  re- 
quired to  do  so  is  a  point  left  undecided  by  these 
exercises. 

8.  The  ability  to  supplement  the  text  of  the  lesson 

The  evidence  in  regard  to  the  ability  of  pupils 
to  supplement  the  text,  that  is,  to  seek  data  from 
other  sources  than  the  book,  is  stronger  than  it 
is  regarding  the  factors  already  considered.  The 
supplementing  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  pu- 
pils drew  upon  memory  for  additional  data,  used 
their  imaginations  to  picture  scenes,  resorted  to 
books  and  maps,  and  asked  questions  relevant  to 
the  lesson,  but  not  answered  in  it.   They  named, 

116 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

also,  various  ways  by  which  they  would  increase 
their  knowledge  of  the  lesson  if  they  had  oppor- 
tunity ;  e.  g.y  read  books,  or  question  people  who 
know.  About  thirty  per  cent  of  the  pupils  gave 
additional  facts  relevant  to  the  lesson,  and  about 
one  third  asked  questions  calling  for  more  know- 
ledge about  it.  Many  questions  were  so  indefinite 
that  their  real  purpose  was  obscure,  but  many 
excellent  questions  were  asked.  The  evidence  is 
very  strong  that  pupils  can  collect  data  from  out- 
side sources  intelligently  and  profitably. 

9.    The  ability  to  see  proble7ns  relating  to  the  lesson 

The  power  of  the  pupils  to  sense  the  author's 
problem  is  revealed  in  a  curious  way.  In  writing 
the  first  test,  a  number  of  pupils  began  to  write 
a  list  of  the  important  topics  in  the  lesson,  and 
gradually  changed  their  statements  to  questions, 
indicating  that  they  had  confused  the  statements 
of  facts  with  the  questions  which  called  for  them. 
They  were  feeling  the  author's  questions  or  prob- 
lems which  had  brought  about  the  statements  in 
the  text. 

In  some  papers,  statements  or  topics  only  were 
given.  In  others,  there  were  questions  only;  but 
a  good  many  were  of  the  mixed  type  shown  above. 

The  questions  asked  in  the  first  and  last  tests 

117 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

of  each  series  indicate  strongly  that  pupils  can 
feel  the  author's  problem,  and  can  see  problems 
growing  out  of  the  lesson  presented,  that  is,  sup- 
plementary problems. 

lo.    The  ability  to  group  related  ideas 

The  tests  showed  almost  nothing  about  the 
power  pupils  may  have  to  organize  subject-matter. 
However,  a  series  of  experiments  conducted  by 
the  writer  with  a  fourth-grade  class,  and  observa- 
tions of  other  classes,  show  conclusively  that 
pupils  can  be  trained  to  see  the  large  points  in  a 
lesson,  and  to  group  the  related  ideas  about  these 
large  centres. 

II.    TJie  formulation  of  hypotJieses  by  pupils 

An  unexpected  result  of  the  tests  was  the 
manifestation  of  the  ability  of  the  pupils  to  form 
hypotheses  as  a  basis  for  solving  the  problem  pre- 
sented to  them.  More  than  a  score  of  children  in 
each  of  the  two  grades  volunteered  explanations 
which  were  quite  relevant.  This  was  especially 
noticeable  in  the  sixth-grade  test  about  tobacco 
growing  in  the  North,  and  in  the  seventh-grade 
test  about  famines  in  India. 

Some  of  the  explanations  given  by  the  sixth 
grade   are   as    follows :    i.    Change   in   climate 

ii8 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

either  in  the  South  or  in  the  North.  2.  South 
needs  land  for  cotton.  3.  Better  facihties  for 
manufacture  and  transportation  in  the  North.  4. 
Cheaper  to  grow  tobacco  in  the  North  than  to 
have  it  shipped  from  the  South.  5.  Increased 
demand  for  tobacco.  6.  Changes  in  economic  con- 
ditions in  the  South  due  to  the  Civil  War.  7. 
People  of  the  North  have  learned  how  to  culti- 
vate tobacco.  8.  Possibly  a  better  quality  can  be 
grown  in  the  North  than  in  the  South. 

In  regard  to  the  frequent  famines  in  India,  the 
seventh-grade  pupils  hazarded  the  hypotheses 
that  they  might  be  due  to  climatic  conditions,  to 
the  nature  of  the  surface,  to  poor  soil,  to  unfavor- 
able winds,  to  inability  to  obtain  sufficient  water 
for  irrigation,  to  occasional  floods,  to  some  insect 
which  destroyed  the  crops,  to  oppressive  govern- 
ment like  that  of  Turkey,  to  density  of  population, 
to  lack  of  knowledge  of  farming,  to  indolence,  to 
lack  of  foresight  or  thrift,  or  to  lack  of  adequate 
means  for  transportation  and  communication. 

Not  all  the  theories  advanced  were  as  relevant 
or  sensible  as  those  just  given  ;  but  the  fact  that 
so  many  were  given  is  indicative  of  the  ability  of 
children  in  these  grades  to  form  hypotheses 
which  are  worth  considering  as  possible  explana- 
tions of  the  problems  demanding  solution. 

119 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

General  Summaiy 

On  the  whole,  the  different  kinds  of  tests  in 
geography  given  pupils  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
grades  show  that  these  pupils  can  employ  the 
various  factors  of  higher  or  logical  study  to  a 
considerable  extent.  They  were  evidently  not 
conscious  of  the  steps  in  systematic  study;  yet 
supplementing  their  account  of  what  they  had 
done  or  would  do  in  study  by  the  results  pro- 
duced when  they  were  called  upon  to  employ  the 
various  factors,  a  sufficiently  large  number  gave 
evidence  of  their  use  to  warrant  the  conclusion 
that  these  pupils  can  find  the  subject  or  leading 
thought  of  a  lesson ;  they  can  organize  the  ma- 
terial presented  ;  they  can  supplement  the  text- 
book intelligently ;  they  can  ask  intelligent  ques- 
tions involving  valuable  problems  ;  and  they  can 
to  some  extent  formulate  sensible  hypotheses 
for  the  solution  of  problems.  The  ability  to  work 
in  characteristic  ways  is  shown  by  the  sources 
employed  for  information,  by  the  theories  ad- 
vanced, by  the  questions  asked,  and,  to  a  lesser 
degree,  in  various  other  ways. 


ARE   CHILDREN    TAUGHT   TO 
STUDY  LOGICALLY? 


VI 

ARE  CHILDREN   TAUGHT    TO 
STUDY  LOGICALLY? 

I.    The  waste  of  effort  show7i  by  the  tests 

In  the  preceding  chapter  it  was  shown  that  a 
sufficiently  large  number  of  pupils  in  the  grades 
tested  employed  the  steps  of  logical  study  to 
warrant  the  conclusion  that  it  is  within  the  power 
of  pupils  of  at  least  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades 
to  make  use  of  them.  Aside,  however,  from  the 
indefiniteness  of  the  language  employed,  which 
often  quite  concealed  the  pupils'  meaning,  the 
tests  reveal  the  fact  that  there  is  great  waste  in 
studying.  In  the  first  test  of  the  first  series,  four- 
teen per  cent  described  their  procedure  in  study- 
ing in  indefinite  terms,  saying  they  would  "think," 
"study,"  "  try  to  understand."  About  thirty-eight 
per  cent  of  the  pupils  thought  the  thing  to  do  was 
to  write  a  more  or  less  literal  version  of  the  text, 
and  about  twenty-nine  per  cent  memorized  the 
text  to  some  extent.  Nearly  one  fifth  of  the  whole 
number  showed,  either  by  doing  notbing  at  all  or 

123 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

doing  something  not  required,  that  they  did  not 
know  what  to  do.  These  figures  show  that  a  good 
deal  of  effort  was  undirected,  and  that  much  was 
misdirected.  The  pupils  wavered  between  indefi- 
niteness  and  mechanical  study.  They  did  not 
clearly  know  the  right  things  to  do,  and  there 
was  a  great  scattering  of  effort  in  various  fruit- 
less kinds  of  work. 

The  second  test  in  the  series  shows  a  very  high 
per  cent  of  those  whose  ideas  were  so  indefinitely 
expressed  that  the  meaning  could  not  be  deter- 
mined. It  shows,  also,  great  expenditure  of  effort 
in  unnecessary  ways.  While  about  one  third  of 
the  pupils  showed  by  their  answers  that  they 
could  take  adequate  measures  to  solve  the  prob- 
lem given,  thus  indicating  that  it  is  possible  for 
pupils  of  the  age  of  these  to  do  such  work,  the 
question  is,  What  about  the  two  thirds  whose 
work  was  not  adequate  .'*  Some  solutions  were  dis- 
tinctly inadequate,  from  about  one  fourth  to  one 
third,  and  the  rest  of  the  papers  were  so  indefi- 
nite that  no  judgment  could  be  formed  as  to  their 
worth  in  this  particular. 

The  third  test  reveals  a  still  greater  degree  of 
inefficiency  than  either  of  the  other  two.  In  the 
last  test  of  the  first  series,  more  than  73.6  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  failed  to  find  the  main  thought 

124 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

in  an  ordinary  geography  lesson;  in  the  corre- 
sponding test  of  the  second  series,  more  than  86.2 
per  cent  failed  to  find  it.  More  than  two  thirds  in 
each  of  these  two  tests  failed  to  make  an  ade- 
quate list  of  the  principal  topics,  though  the  mat- 
ter presented  was  simple  enough  for  some  pupils 
to  make  excellent  lists.  The  greatest  difificulty 
experienced  by  the  pupils  was  in  connection  with 
the  requirements  to  find  the  most  important  thing 
in  the  lesson,  and  to  give  reasons  for  thinking  it 
so  important.  An  appreciable  per  cent  chose  a 
minor  point  in  the  lesson,  and  several  chose  some- 
thing not  in  the  lesson  at  all.  Many  named  more 
than  one  thing  as  being  the  most  important  thing 
in  the  lesson,  some  even  including  practically 
every  point  of  the  lesson.  Such  answers  had  to  be 
classified  as  indefinite.  Many  gave  a  topic  which 
was  so  general,  so  unlimited,  that  their  answers, 
too,  were  marked  indefinite.  The  reasoning  gave 
the  poorest  results  in  these  tests.  It  was  based 
frequently  upon  some  personal  consideration.  A 
thing  was  considered  most  important  because  it 
was  interesting  to  the  writer;  because  he  had 
never  known  it  before ;  because  he  had  known  it 
before ;  because  he  might  need  it  in  his  geogra- 
phy lesson ;  because  he  might  need  to  talk  about 
it  some  day.    Or,  having  named  several  items  as 

125 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

being  most  important,  a  pupil  would  then  ad- 
vance reasons  for  the  importance  of  one  of  them. 
The  lack  of  clearness  in  expression  and  the 
misdirection  of  mental  activity  are  shown  in  the 
responses  to  the  fifth  and  sixth  requirements  of 
the  last  test.  In  response  to  the  question,  "What 
other  facts  do  you  know  about  any  of  these 
topics.?"  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  answers 
in  each  test  were  irrelevant,  were  taken  from 
the  text  which  was  being  studied,  or  bore  no  re- 
lation to  the  requirement, 

2.  Reasons  why  the  factors  of  logical  study  are 
not  employed  more  generally 

If  enough  pupils  use  the  various  factors  of 
proper  study  to  show  that  it  is  possible  for  chil- 
dren of  their  age  to  employ  them,  the  questions 
arise.  Why  do  not  many  more  of  the  pupils 
employ  them.?  Why  are  they  not  in  common 
use .?  In  trying  to  solve  this  problem,  a  study 
was  made  of  the  present  schoolroom  situation  by 
means  of  visits  to  some  seventy  classes,  and  by 
a  questionnaire  given  to  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  teachers,  with  the  object  of  trying  to  find 
what  their  ideas  in  regard  to  study  are,  and  what 
they  try  to  have  their  pupils  do  when  they  teach 
them  to  study.   As  far  as  could  be  avoided,  no 

126 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

clue  was  given  to  the  teachers  writing  this  qties- 
tionnaire  which  could  in  any  way  influence  their 
answers.  The  aim  was  to  discover  the  things 
which  stood  out  prominently  enough  in  con- 
sciousness to  secure  expression  when  the  process 
of  study  was  being  described  or  illustrated.  Had 
direct  questions  been  asked  about  the  various 
factors  of  study,  probably  many  of  the  teachers 
would  have  felt  the  influence  of  suggestion  in 
shaping  their  replies. 

The  questiomiaire  as  a  whole  reveals  that  these 
teachers  themselves  are  lacking  the  proper  con- 
ception of  the  process  of  higher  study;  that  they 
tend  to  exalt  memorizing ;  and  that  they  do  not 
as  a  class  accord  recognition  to  any  factor  or 
factors  as  being  essential  to  study.  In  several 
instances,  the  factors  which  they  have  recog- 
nized to  a  considerable  extent  were  employed 
largely  by  the  pupils  in  their  studies  ;  and  the 
factors  which  the  teachers  have  overlooked  in 
their  reports  were  used  but  little  by  the  pupils 
in  their  tests. 

3.  A  second  means  of  investigating  present  pro- 
cedure in  teaching  children  to  study 

With  the  purpose  of  investigating  still  further 
the  extent  to  which  pupils  are  being  taught  to 

127 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

study  in  the  higher  sense  of  the  word,  seventy 
recitations  were  observed  in  various  cities  of  the 
United  States.  During  the  year  1905-06,  a  qties- 
tiomiaire  was  sent  out  to  a  number  of  principals 
of  schools.  This  qiiestio7tnaire  was  to  be  filled 
out  by  the  principals  after  certain  recitations 
had  been  observed.  While  information  was  de- 
sired mainly  in  regard  to  how  the  teacher  treated 
the  thought-content  of  the  lesson  in  the  assign- 
ment, what  he  expected  the  pupils  to  do  with  it 
in  preparing  the  lesson,  and  how  he  disposed  of 
it  during  the  recitation  period,  other  items  were 
added,  not  only  to  supplement  the  chief  purpose, 
but  also  that  they  might  prevent  the  main  points 
from  being  so  prominent  that  the  report  upon 
them  would  be  more  or  less  biased. 

At  the  time  that  this  qiiestiojinaire  was  sent 
out,  the  writer  was  doing  some  experimental  work 
with  a  fourth-grade  class  in  reading;  conse- 
quently, the  principals  were  asked  to  observe 
reading  classes  in  the  intermediate  department, 
including  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades.  Reports 
were  received  from  Duluth,  Minn.,  Madison, 
Wis.,  Passaic,  N.  J.,  and  Baltimore,  Md.  The 
writer  visited  a  number  of  schools,  both  public 
and  private,  in  New  York  City,  and  several  classes 
in  the  public  schools  of  Passaic,  N,  J.  The  sub- 

128 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

jects  in  which  recitations  were  observed  were 
reading,  history,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  lan- 
guage. 

The  data  obtained  were  tabulated  according  to 
subjects,  and  while  there  is  much  that  is  valuable 
in  a  recitation  which  is  not  susceptible  of  tabula- 
tion, for  example,  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  and 
the  class-room  atmosphere,  still  it  is  worth  while 
to  note  some  of  the  things  done  or  left  undone 
in  the  way  of  training  pupils  to  work  indepen- 
dently and  logically. 

4.   General  summary  of  the  questionnaires,  and 

observations 

Careful  examination  of  the  results  of  the  ob- 
servations and  both  questionnaires  compelled  the 
conclusion  that,  although  pupils  possess  ability 
to  employ  the  various  factors  of  proper  study, 
the  teachers  lack  a  clear  conception  of  what  such 
study  is.  The  teachers  who  wrote  the  question- 
naires do  not  themselves  employ  these  factors  to 
any  great  extent ;  and  the  teachers  observed  in 
the  class-rooms  are  not  training  their  pupils  to 
use  them.  The  teacher  is  the  centre  and  moving 
power  in  nearly  all  of  the  work,  and  the  require- 
ments laid  upon  the  pupils  involve  mechanical 
effort  to  a  large  degree.  The  aim  of  the  work  as 

129 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

a  whole  seems  to  be  the  mechanical  acquisition 
of  subject-matter. 

The  development  of  the  power  to  work  inde- 
pendently, intelligently,  and  economically  is  al- 
most entirely  ignored.  The  teachers  do  not  know 
of  what  such  study  consists  and  consequently 
give  little  thought  to  its  cultivation.  They  would 
probably  do  so  if  they  had  definite  ideas  as  to  its 
nature,  for  they  are  frequently  heard  to  lament 
the  fact  that  their  pupils  do  not  know  how  to 
study  or  to  think.  Unfortunately,  the  books  on 
method  give  little  or  nothing  in  regard  to  method 
of  study.  They  deal  almost  exclusively  with  the 
teaching  side  of  the  school-room  situation,  and  do 
not  say  anything  at  all  about  training  pupils  to 
study,  or  else  what  they  do  contain  is  stated  in 
such  general  terms  that  it  benefits  the  teacher 
very  little. 


CAN    CHILDREN   BE  TAUGHT 
TO    STUDY    LOGICALLY? 


VII 

CAN   CHILDREN    BE   TAUGHT 
TO    STUDY    LOGICALLY? 

I.   The  attempt  to  train  pupils  in  the  use  of  the 
factors  of  logical  study 

In  Chapter  V  the  statement  was  made  that 
part  of  the  classes  tested  in  both  the  sixth  and 
seventh  grades  were  trained  in  the  use  of  the 
factors  of  higher  study  between  the  first  and 
second  series  of  tests,  the  idea  being  to  discover 
what  difference  such  training  would  produce  in 
the  results  of  the  second  series.  It  must  be  stated 
frankly  that  the  conditions  governing  this  at- 
tempted training  were  far  from  ideal.  Two  of  the 
five  classes  trained  in  the  sixth  grade  and  three 
of  the  four  classes  trained  in  the  seventh  grade 
were  in  schools  of  practice  where  the  pupils  were 
not  under  the  care  of  one  teacher  continuously  ; 
but  were  taught  by  pupil  teachers  or  special 
teachers  part  of  the  time.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, the  influence  and  training  of  even  a 
strong  teacher  would  not  have  full  opportunity 

133 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

to  produce  their  effect,  and  not  all  of  these  teach- 
ers were  strong,  either  in  their  mental  grasp  or 
their  teaching  ability.  At  least  two  were  very- 
weak. 

Then,  too,  with  but  one  exception,  not  one  of 
the  teachers  of  these  classes  had  attended  the 
lectures  in  which  Professor  F.  M.  McMurry  of 
Columbia  University  had  advanced  the  theory  of 
systematic  study;  so  that  they  lacked  both  the  lec- 
tures and  the  accompanying  discussions  of  them 
by  experienced  teachers.  They  were  taught  the 
theory  of  study  at  second  hand  by  those  who  had 
attended  this  class,  and  an  interval  of  three 
months  was  a  short  period  for  them  to  learn  the 
theory  and  then  apply  it  to  classes  with  sufficient 
success  to  produce  marked  results. 

To  add  to  the  difficulty,  there  was  almost  no 
literature  on  the  subject  to  put  into  their  hands 
to  help  them  in  understanding  the  theory  and  its 
requirements,  and  there  were  no  schools  practic- 
ing the  theory  which  could  be  observed  and  used 
as  guides.  A  copy  of  a  paper  read  by  Professor 
F.  M.  McMurry  before  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence of  the  National  Educational  Associa- 
tion in  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  March,  1906,  on  the 
subject,  "Some  Suggestions  for  the  Improvement 
of  the  Study  Period,"  was  sent  to  each  teacher 

134 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

who  undertook  the  training  work.  In  addition, 
there  was  sent  a  copy  of  the  theoretical  discus- 
sion of  the  steps  in  systematic  study  which  was 
part  of  an  essay  on  "The  Study  of  the  Reading 
Lesson  in  the  Fourth  Grade,"  prepared  by  the 
writer  of  this  book. 

Under  the  compulsion  of  circumstances  the 
work  of  training  was  undertaken  even  with  such 
adverse  conditions,  and  the  courage  and  good 
will  of  the  school  teachers  and  school  principals 
who  aided  in  the  task  are  gratefully  recognized. 

If  the  training  of  the  pupils  was  successful,  the 
percentage  of  pupils  in  the  trained  classes  who 
used  the  factors  of  logical  study  in  writing  the 
second  series  ought  to  be  greater  than  the  per- 
centage who  used  them  in  the  first  series ;  and 
the  number  of  trained  pupils  who  wrote  indefinite, 
general,  or  irrelevant  answers  should  be  lower  in 
the  second  series  than  in  the  first.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  results  shows  that  the  changes  are 
not  always  in  the  direction  of  greater  proficiency 
for  the  trained  classes,  though  even  under  ad- 
verse conditions  they  excelled  in  a  number  of 
particulars. 

Of  the  answers  which  are  sufficiently  definite 
to  show  what  the  pupils  did  in  studying,  those 
which  approach  nearest  to  higher  study  are  in 

135 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

regard  to  finding  the  subject,  finding  the  impor- 
tant points,  verifying  the  statements,  and  supple- 
menting the  lesson. 

2.  Summary  of  tJie  comparisons  of  the  trained 

and  the  ^mtrained  groups 

The  three  tests  show  that  on  the  whole  the 
trained  sixth  grades  made  a  better  record  in  the 
second  series  than  the  untrained  sixth  grades. 
The  trained  seventh  grades  excelled  the  other 
seventh  grades  in  finding  the  subject  and  in  se- 
lecting the  main  points  of  the  lesson,  both  in  the 
first  and  in  the  last  tests  of  the  series,  but  their 
record  as  a  whole  was  not  as  strong  as  that  of 
the  trained  sixth  grades.  It  is  doubtful  whether, 
save  in  the  two  particulars  mentioned,  which  are 
both  very  important,  their  record  was  any  better 
than  that  of  the  untrained  seventh  grades. 

3.  An  experiment  in  teaching  ptipils  to  study  a 

reading  lesson 

Confirmatory  evidence  of  the  ability  of  pupils 
in  the  elementary  school  to  study  may  be  seen 
in  the  results  obtained  from  a  reading  class  in 
the  fourth  grade  in  the  Speyer  School,  the  prac- 
tice school  of  Teachers  College.  A  series  of  six- 
teen lessons  was  given  by  the  writer  to  this  class 

136 


CHILDREN  AND  LOGICAL  STUDY 

in  the  spring  of  1906,  to  determine  whether  the 
pupils  of  the  fourth  grade  possess  the  ability  to 
employ  the  factors  of  logical  study,  and  whether 
they  can  be  taught  to  use  them  independently 
and  habitually.  The  lesson  periods  were  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes  long,  and  there  was 
no  study  period.  The  text  used  for  reading  was 
a  version  of  the  Odyssey  edited  by  Mrs.  Lida  B. 
McMurry. 

This  series  of  lessons  showed  plainly  that  pu- 
pils in  the  fourth  grade  are  capable  of  finding 
problems  for  themselves,  of  organizing  the  les- 
son, of  asking  intelligent  questions,  of  forming 
sensible  hypotheses,  of  exercising  judgment  as  to 
the  statements  made  by  the  author,  of  mastering 
formal  difficulties  for  themselves,  and,  in  various 
ways,  of  exercising  initiative  wisely  and  profit- 
ably. It  showed,  too,  that  when  pupils  work  in 
such  a  way  they  work  with  zeal  and  accomplish 
much  more  than  is  done  when  they  must  spend 
time  upon  useless  details  and  mechanical  meth- 
ods of  working. 

General  summary  of  the  tests  and  experimejits 

The  fourth  grade  was  selected  for  these  tests 
because  it  is  usually  the  lowest  grade  in  the  in- 
termediate department  of  the  elementary  schools, 

137 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

and  it  was  thought  that  whatever  abilities  such 
pupils  possess  might  reasonably  be  looked  for  to 
at  least  as  great  a  degree  in  all  of  the  interme- 
diate and  grammar  grades.  The  results  of  this 
series  of  lessons,  coupled  with  the  results  of  the 
tests  in  geography  given  to  the  sixth  and  seventh 
grades,  indicate  strongly  that  pupils  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  in  grades  including  the  fourth, 
as  well  as  higher  classes,  are  able,  not  only  to 
employ  the  factors  of  logical  study,  but  also  that 
by  means  of  systematic  effort  they  can  be  made 
to  improve  in  their  employment  of  them. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TRAINING 
CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 


VIII 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TRAINING 
CHILDREN  TO   STUDY 

I.   The  teacher  s  attitude  tozvard  the  subjects  to  be 

taught 

Teachers  have  asked  whether,  under  the  con- 
ditions in  which  they  must  do  their  work,  it  is 
possible  to  train  pupils  to  study  thoughtfully. 
They  must  prepare  their  classes  to  face  exami- 
nations set  by  the  school  authorities,  and  subject- 
matter  means  just  so  much  material  which  must 
be  learned  by  the  pupils  by  the  quickest  possible 
process  in  order  to  cover  the  field  before  exami- 
nation time.  As  a  consequence  subjects  are  not 
regarded  as  means  by  which  pupils  may  be  In- 
structed and  trained,  but  as  so  many  things  to 
be  disposed  of  in  the  shortest  time.  But  suppose 
we  assume  that  pupils  trained  to  study  can  not 
only  master  the  subjects  in  less  time,  but  can  do 
so  with  much  more  profit  to  themselves,  then 
what  should  be  the  teacher's  attitude  toward  the 
subject-matter  of  his  grade  .?  Clearly  the  mate- 

141 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

rial  should  assume  a  new  importance.  Not  only 
may  it  be  mastered  against  the  day  of  examina- 
tions, but  it  becomes  a  means  of  valuable  train- 
ing in  ways  of  working  which  constitute  a  real 
preparation  for  life.  In  preparing  for  class-work, 
the  teacher  should  not  merely  study  the  lesson 
for  his  own  command  of  the  facts.  For  the  sake 
of  the  class  he  must  try  to  discover  the  possi- 
bilities afforded  by  the  lesson  for  training  the 
pupils  in  thoughtful  ways  of  working.  Which 
steps  can  the  pupils  employ  readily  in  the  case 
of  a  given  lesson  ?  With  which  will  they  need 
help  ?  Which  must  they  employ  ?  Which  may  be 
safely  omitted  ?  These  questions  are  a  few  of  the 
many  which  will  surely  suggest  themselves  to  a 
teacher  who  undertakes  to  give  his  class  syste- 
matic training  in  the  higher  form  of  studying. 
Like  most  new  modes  of  working,  it  may  in  the 
beginning  require  a  great  deal  of  time  to  deter- 
mine the  possibilities  of  the  material,  but  prac- 
tice will  bring  facility.  The  teacher  will  be  able 
to  see  quickly  whether  the  lesson  calls  for  induc- 
tive or  deductive  study ;  whether  the  problem  is 
or  is  not  quite  apparent ;  whether  the  book  offers 
sufficient  data,  or  whether  it  must  be  supple- 
mented ;  what  organization  is  possible  or  advisa- 
ble ;  whether  the  lesson  contemplated  should  end 

142 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

in  a  positive  theory  or  in  a  suspended  judgment ; 
whetlier  memorizing  is  necessary ;  and  what 
forms  of  verification  are  profitable  and  possible. 

2.   The  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  class 

Having  done  as  much  of  this  preliminary 
work  as  is  necessary,  the  teacher  needs  to  keep 
his  mind  open  and  flexible,  so  that  he  shall  not 
dominate  absolutely  the  efforts  of  the  class.  It 
often  happens  that  the  teacher  gets  his  mind  so 
fixed  upon  his  own  plan  or  his  own  idea  that  he 
is  totally  blind  to  anything  of  value  in  the  plans 
or  ideas  suggested  by  the  pupils.  If  the  pupils 
are  to  be  trained,  their  plans  and  ideas  must  be 
the  starting  point.  They  constitute  the  stock  in 
trade,  the  raw  material  with  which  the  work 
must  be  done.  Guided  at  first  by  the  teacher, 
and  gradually  more  and  more  by  their  own  de- 
veloping experience,  the  pupils  must  learn  to 
judge  of  the  value  of  their  own  work,  their  own 
recitations,  their  own  theories.  To  be  helpful  in 
this  respect,  the  teacher  must  be  on  such  terms 
with  his  pupils  that  his  presence  does  not  stand 
in  the  way  of  free  mental  activity.  A  teacher 
who  frightens  his  class,  who  is  over-serious,  or 
who  is  sarcastic,  will  not  be  able  to  make  much 
progress  in  training  pupils  to  study,  since  his 

143 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

attitude  retards  rather  than  accelerates  thinking 
on  the  part  of  the  class.  Fairness,  frankness,  the 
spirit  of  cooperation,  a  brisk  procedure  which 
brings  a  sense  of  accomplishment,  —  these  are 
helpful  to  pupils,  and  experience  shows  that  pu- 
pils respond  to  such  qualities  in  their  instructors. 

3.   The  need  of  training  in  many  directions 

In  undertaking  to  teach  children  to  study,  it 
must  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that  they  will  not 
learn  the  process  so  as  to  apply  it  generally  un- 
less they  learn  it  in  connection  with  many  kinds 
of  work  involving  thought.  To  narrow  the  train- 
ing to  the  reading,  arithmetic,  geography,  or  any 
other  one  subject  will  not  necessarily  produce 
trained  students  except  in  the  subject  employed. 
The  training  must  be  general  if  the  application 
is  to  be  general. 

4.    Consciousness  of  factors   not   necessary  with 
very  young  children 

Another  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  training 
the  very  young  children  is  that  it  is  quite  as  un- 
necessary and  just  as  time-consuming  to  make 
them  conscious  of  the  reasons  for  the  various 
steps  in  studying  as  to  make  them  conscious  of 
the  reasons  for  the  various  processes  which  they 

144 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

learn  to  employ  in  arithmetic,  or  for  the  various 
correct  forms  of  speech  which  they  are  taught 
to  use.  They  learn  to  do  many  things  uncon- 
sciously in  the  early  days,  the  reasons  for  which 
are  wisely  postponed  until  the  days  of  better 
understanding.  The  reasons  are  not  always  nec- 
essary to  the  mastery  of  the  process,  and  even 
though  the  pupils  might  be  made  to  understand 
them,  the  expenditure  of  time  and  energy  re- 
quired with  little  children  is  out  of  proportion  to 
the  results  obtained.  They  can  learn  with  much 
greater  ease  a  few  years  later,  and  therefore  the 
rational  side  of  many  processes  can  safely  be 
neglected  until  that  time. 

5.  Learning  to  find  the  problem 

Little  children  will  learn  how  to  study  by  being 
trained  into  right  habits  of  studying  by  the  teacher. 
In  their  early  oral  work  in  literature,  reading,  or 
nature  study,  the  process  of  training  may  begin, 
and  as  the  children  gain  in  power  and  maturity, 
more  and  more  may  be  expected  of  them.  To  de- 
cide upon  the  name  of  a  story  they  have  heard 
requires  reflection  upon  the  story  as  a  whole,  and 
judgment  as  to  the  most  striking  characteristics. 
To  find  a  better  title  to  the  reading  lesson  than 
the  author  has  given,  to  find  a  more  interesting 

145 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

title,  or  at  least  to  find  a  different  one  that  is 
suitable,  will  require  similar  effort,  and  makes  a 
good  beginning  in  mastering  thought. 

In  addition  to  finding  the  subject  of  a  lesson 
and  finding  its  large  divisions,  young  children  can 
be  trained  to  see  what  question  or  questions  the 
author  has  answered  in  a  paragraph  or  section. 
Teacher  and  pupilsmay  work  together  at  this  until 
the  latter  get  the  idea,  and  then  a  lesson  may  be 
assigned  to  give  practice  in  their  new  way  of  work- 
ing. Children  naturally  ask  questions  calling  for 
more  information,  more  facts  or  more  reasons,  and 
need  guidance  in  making  choice  of  such  questions 
for  class  use.  Questions  related  to  the  lesson  but 
not  answered  in  the  book,  or  questions  growing  out 
of  the  thought  given  in  the  text,  should  be  en- 
couraged, and  pupils  should  be  trained  to  dis- 
criminate between  those  which  are  valuable  and 
those  which  are  not.  They  also  need  to  learn  how  to 
express  the  questions  well.  A  seventh  grade  which 
had  less  than  a  month  of  this  work  grew  quite 
discriminating  as  to  the  nature  and  form  of  ques- 
tions suggested  by  the  members  of  the  class.  These 
pupils  objected  to  questions  as  being  too  long,  as 
lacking  clearness,  as  telling  the  answer,  as  being 
too  simple,  as  being  clumsy  or  poorly  worded,  and 
so  on.  They  were  giving  themselves  some  excel- 

146 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

lent  training  in  the  art  of  questioning,  and  were 
mastering  their  texts,  since  they  had  to  judge  of 
the  correctness  of  the  answers  given  to  the  ques- 
tions which  they  asked.  Grades  much  lower  in 
rank  can  do  something  in  this  direction. 

Children  can  also  be  trained  to  analyze  a  situ- ' 
ation  or  problem  and  discover  what  the  thing  is 
which  is  to  be  known  or  done,  and  what  the  facts 
are  which  they  can  employ  in  solving  the  problem. 
Take  an  example  in  arithmetic  like  the  following : 
A  little  girl  bought  two  quarts  of  milk  at  four  cents 
a  pint.  How  much  did  the  milk  cost  .-•  When  such 
problems  are  first  begun  in  class,  the  teacher  asks 
all  the  questions,  as  "What  is  it  that  is  to  be  found 
out.?"  "What  does  the  problem  tell  you.?"  "How 
can  you  use  what  you  know  so  as  to  find  out  the 
answer.?"  and  any  other  questions  that  are  neces- 
sary. But  unless  the  teacher  helps  the  child  to^ 
help  himself,  he  is  likely  to  remain  a  helpless  depen- 
dent. He  should  learn  to  make  his  own  analysis. 
He  may  even  need  to  write  down  in  one  column 
what  he  knows  and  in  another  what  he  does  not 
know,  and  then  try  to  find  some  clue  which  leads 
to  the  solution.  In  sentential  analysis,  in  parsing, 
in  arithmetic  and  other  branches  of  mathematics, 
in  geography,  just  such  opportunities  for  self- 
questioning,  for  analysis  of  the  problem,  present 

147 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

themselves,  and  unless  they  are  utilized,  we  shall 
continue  to  have  pupils  in  higher  grades  and  higher 
schools  who  wait  for  the  instructor  to  ask  all  the 
questions  and  direct  all  thought.  It  is  necessary 
for  the  teacher  to  do  all  or  most  of  the  question- 
ing with  little  children,  but  pupils  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  grades  have  demonstrated  that  they  are 
able  to  assume  much  of  this  responsibility  them- 
selves. They  need  oversight,  direction,  help  in 
various  ways,  but  it  should  be  help  which  leads 
to  greater  power  in  breaking  up  situations  or 
problems  and  finding  right  solutions,  not  help 
which  perpetuates  dependence. 

6.   The  function  of  the  lesson  assignment 

In  this  connection,  the  lesson  assignment  as- 
sumes new  importance.  It  is  not  merely  a  time 
when  the  pages  containing  the  new  lesson  are  in- 
dicated. It  is  the  teacher's  opportunity  to  pre- 
pare the  class  for  right  study.  If  the  pupils  need 
i/help  in  finding  the  aim,  the  lesson  assignment 
should  pave  the  way  for  its  discovery.  This  func- 
tion of  the  assignment  holds  true  for  all  the  steps 
manifestly  involved  in  the  mastery  of  a  lesson  by 
a  class  during  a  study  period.  This  assignment 
may  occupy  a  separate  period,  or  it  may  be  made 
in  connection  with  some  lesson  out  of  which  the 

148 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

new  lesson  develops,  and  with  which  it  is  closely 
related.  Opportunity  for  the  assignment  of  re- 
lated lessons  occurs  frequently  and  should  not  be 
overlooked. 

7.  Learning  to  supplement  the  text 

A  form  of  supplementing  the  text  which  little 
children  can  begin  to  use,  is  the  employment 
of  other  books  upon  which  they  make  reports  to 
the  class.  Or,  indeed,  the  other  material  may 
be  drawn  from  any  one  of  many  sources ;  from 
books,  people,  observation,  or  experimentation. 
But  some  supplementary  assignment,  however 
simple  and  easy,  is  given  to  the  class,  or  to  some 
individuals  in  the  class,  and  is  to  be  prepared  and 
reported  upon  in  a  future  recitation.  The  child 
becomes  responsible  for  something  definite,  and 
his  work  assumes  a  new  value  in  his  eyes.  Whe- 
ther he  is  interested  in  the  task  for  its  own  sake 
or  does  it  through  a  sense  of  compulsion,  he  will 
still  be  the  gainer.  The  point  is  that  he  learns 
to  use  outside  sources,  to  cull  the  material  re- 
lating to  the  topic,  to  arrange  it  in  order,  and  to 
give  it  to  the  class.  As  he  masters  the  use  of  the 
topical  outline,  this  supplementary  work  becomes 
increasingly  valuable,  for  then  the  pupils'  reports 
are  more  orderly  and  reliable.  These  individual 

149 


iX 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

assignments  enable  a  teacher  to  save  much  time 
for  his  class,  since  instead  of  having  all  of  the 
class  look  up  all  of  a  subject,  he  can  divide  the 
work,  and  so  get  it  done  more  thoroughly  and 
with  less  expenditure  of  time  by  the  class  as  a 
whole.  A  certain  eighth  grade  prepares  many  of 
its  history  and  geography  lessons  in  the  manner 
above  described.  When  a  boy  is  called  upon  to 
recite,  he  writes  his  subject  and  a  brief  outline 
upon  the  blackboard,  and  then  recites  to  the 
class,  following  the  order  of  his  topics.  The  other 
members  may  or  may  not  question  him.  If  he 
has  made  some  important  omission,  the  teacher 
questions  him.    He  may  bring  books  containing 
maps  or  illustrations  for  the  class  to  examine,  and 
does  not  hesitate  to  draw  a  sketch  in  a  simple 
way  if  it  is  necessary.  This  work  has  its  begin- 
nings in  the  lowest  primary  grades,  where  the 
children    are   made   responsible  for   something 
which  they  can  easily  find  out  and  which  they 
must  bring  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  class. 

8.  Judging  the  value  of  material 

In  connection  with  the  work  in  supplementing, 
comes  the  idea  of  training  pupils  to  judge  whe- 
ther the  information  they  find  or  present  is  true. 
Little  children  tell  some  very  surprising  things 

150 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

sometimes,  and  we  often  overlook  them  because 
we  say  the  narrators  have  not  yet  learned  to  draw 
an  exact  line  between  the  real  and  the  imaginary. 
But  when  actual  facts  are  called  for  and  these 
marvelous  contributions  are  offered,  the  child 
should  be  met  with  the  question,  "  Do  you  know 
that  to  be  true  or  are  you  making  believe?" 
Even  older  people  have  sometimes  to  reflect  that 
they  are  dealing  with  theories  and  not  with  facts. 
Then,  too,  children  frequently  read  so  hastily  and 
so  imperfectly  that  they  get  the  facts  of  the  book 
quite  distorted.  They  need  to  be  trained  to  an  ac- 
curate rendering.  In  regard  to  hearsay  evidence, 
they  can  learn  to  be  discriminating,  and  to  reject 
the  wildly  improbable.  In  many  ways  which  will 
come  to  the  careful  teacher  as  he  looks  for  oppor- 
tunity, the  pupils  in  the  lower  grades  can  be  led  to 
realize  that  the  material  which  they  present  must 
be  selected  with  discrimination,  and  that  it  must 
be  true.  Reading  must  be  carefully  done,  obser- 
vations must  be  exactly  taken,  and  things  heard 
must  be  sifted  before  reports  are  made.  Gradu- 
ally, as  more  responsibility  is  put  upon  the  pupils 
for  the  selection  of  the  sources  of  data,  the  chil- 
dren ought  to  be  made  discriminating  in  their* 
judgment  of  these  sources.  They  should  consider 
why  one  newspaper  should  be  consulted  rather 

151 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

than  another;  why  one  historian  or  geographer 
should  be  preferred  to  others  ;  and  why  certain 
people's  reports  are  more  to  be  relied  upon  than 
others.  If  they  have  been  alert  and  critical  in  re- 
gard to  the  work  done  in  class  from  day  to  day, 
this  new  expression  of  their  judgment  should  not 
be  arduous.  Criticism  of  sources  will  often  come 
naturally,  as,  for  example,  the  criticism  of  newspa- 
pers and  periodicals  of  sensational  type;  of  writers 
whose  statements  are  founded  on  slight  evidences 
and  permeated  by  an  unfriendly  spirit.  These  are 
only  suggestions  as  to  the  possibility  of  training 
children  in  the  critical  judgment  of  materials. 
Doubtless  the  teacher  will  find  many  ways  of  di- 
recting and  training  his  classes  in  proper  atti- 
tudes toward  data  and  conclusions.  Under  the 
criticism  which  he  is  led  to  make  of  himself,  in 
addition  to  that  offered  by  his  mates,  a  pupil  v/ill 
gradually  learn  to  refrain  from  wild  guessing, 
even  if  he  makes  no  advance  on  the  positive  side 
of  sound  thinking. 

9.  Learning  to  organize  data 

While  preparing  some  story  for  oral  reproduc- 
tion or  for  dramatization,  the  pupils  can  decide 
which  part  must  be  told  or  played  first,  which 
next,  and  so  on.   In  the  third  and  fourth  grades, 

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TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

this  exercise  leads  to  the  formation  of  an  outline 
for  a  topical  recitation  or  to  serve  as  a  guide  in 
composition.  In  all  such  work  the  teacher  should 
guide  the  children  toward  being  critical  of  their 
own  titles,  topics,  and  outlines,  commending  that 
which  is  good  and  pointing  out  that  which  is  bad 
with  a  statement  of  the  reasons  for  the  judgment. 
The  teacher  must  not  demand  perfection  in  these 
first  attempts,  but  should  accept  the  pupils'  ef-  ^y 
forts  without  too  much  correction  on  his  part. 
As  their  critical  judgment  develops,  better  results 
can  be  demanded. 

These  exercises,  begun  with  material  already 
presented  before  the  class,  prepare  directly  for 
individual  study  of  books.  As  the  pupils  learn 
the  various  steps,  they  should  be  given  oppor- 
tunity to  use  them  independently  with  suitable 
material,  and  should  be  tested  in  class  that  the 
progress  they  are  making  in  their  use  may  be 
seen.  These  topical  outlines  should  be  prepared 
independently  by  older  pupils  in  preparation  for 
class  recitation,  as  a  basis  for  composition,  as  a 
convenient  means  of  note-taking,  and  for  any 
other  purpose  where  a  concise  and  orderly  sur- 
vey of  the  content  of  a  given  piece  of  subject- 
matter  is  necessary.  In  the  higher  grades,  the 
use  of  the  written  outline  may  be  superseded  by 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

the  purely  mental  outline.  Not  all  pupils  may  be 
able  to  make  and  hold  a  topical  analysis  without 
notes,  but  how  much  they  can  really  do  is  not 
known  because  we  have  not  trained  them  to  use 
the  power  they  possess, 

lO.   Traijiing pupils  to  work  quickly 

Pupils  not  only  need  to  master  the  contents  of 
their  books  systematically  and  thoroughly,  but 
they  need  to  master  them  quickly.  There  are 
many  students,  in  school  and  out,  who  spend 
hours  poring  over  subjects  which  they  might 
grasp  in  minutes  rather  than  hours  if  only  they 
had  learned  the  habit  of  working  quickly.  Teach- 
ers can  train  pupils  into  rapidity  even  with  the 
first  oral  work  in  studying,  just  as  they  train 
them  into  quick  recognition  of  combinations  of 
letters  or  figures  in  reading  or  arithmetic.  When 
the  study  of  books  is  begun,  economy  of  time 
can  still  be  insisted  upon,  and  if  a  class,  or  indi- 
viduals in  a  class,  work  too  slowly,  special  exer- 
cises for  increasing  rapidity  may  be  employed  as 
in  other  subjects.  Competition  of  row  against 
row  in  the  time  required  to  prepare  a  good  out- 
line, to  find  the  subject,  to  find  the  first  large 
point,  and  the  like,  will  accelerate  effort.  The 
time  which  is  necessary  for  the  whole  class  to 

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TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

find  the  main  idea  of  a  paragraph  can  be  noted. 
Pupils  can  be  encouraged  to  keep  a  daily  record 
of  the  time  required  to  prepare  the  lesson  in  the 
subject  which  consumes  too  much  time,  and  to 
see  how  much  they  can  lower  the  time  record 
and  still  make  thorough  preparation.  The  main 
thing  is  to  rouse  their  interest  and  cooperation 
in  the  effort  to  learn  to  study  both  quickly  and 
well.  Slowness  is  frequently  a  habit,  and  should  ^^ 
be  replaced  by  a  rate  of  performance  which  se- 
cures good  results  in  less  time.  The  teacher's 
thought  and  ingenuity  will  help  if  only  he  recog- 
nizes the  situation  and  determines  to  improve  it. 
Much  of  the  trouble  comes,  with  adults,  at  least, 
from  thinking  that  every  word  must  be  inspected. 
They  have  not  learned  to  sweep  through  a  para-  ^. 
graph  to  find  the  salient  thought  which  it  offers 
and  to  disregard  the  rest.  Consequently,  they 
waste  time  and  wear  themselves  out  uselessly. 
Habit  holds  them  slavishly.  Those  who  are  taught 
to  study  when  young  may  escape  such  slavery. 

1 1 .    The  value  of  the  ptizzle  problem 

An  important  help  in  training  pupils  in  analy- 
sis and  in  the  use  of  the  various  steps  of  study 
is  the  "  puzzle  problem."  Such  a  problem  appeals  ^^ 
to  the  natural  interests  of  children.  It  inspires  to 

155 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

combat,  so  to  speak,  and  arouses  the  desire  to 
conquer.  The  answer  is  not  especially  important, 
however  interesting  it  may  be  as  a  sign  of  vic- 
tory. It  is  the  intricacies  of  the  process  which 
engage  the  attention,  and  challenge  one's  best 
efforts.  There  must  be  very  careful  analysis  in 
order  to  get  the  exact  situation,  and  means  and 
end  must  be  carefully  compared.  Such  problems 
used  to  abound  in  the  old  mental  arithmetic,  and 
in  the  miscellaneous  problems  found  here  and 
there  in  the  written  arithmetics.  The  newer  books 
have  "puzzle  problems"  in  more  practical  form, 
so  that  the  answers  have  more  value  ;  but  when 
in  the  old  books  the  dog  pursued  the  hare,  or  the 
frog  crept  out  of  the  well,  or  the  proportions  of 
the  head,  tail,  and  body  of  the  fish  were  con- 
cerned, the  answer  had  absolutely  no  value,  and 
all  interest  centred  in  the  process^ 

Ordinarily,  the  practical,  e very-day  problems 
are  best  for  a  class,  and  should  constitute  the 
main  part  of  all  applied  work.  The  catch  problems, 
and  the  less  practical  "puzzle  problems,"  serve 
as  a  stimulus,  and  can  be  used  occasionally  to 
give  zest  to  the  regular  work. 


^ 


156 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

12.   The  position  of  the  answer:  its  effect  upon 

study 

In  this  connection,  it  is  not  inappropriate  to 
speak  of  the  position  of  the  answer  in  the  book, 
or  in  a  lesson  assigned  on  the  blackboard.  If  the 
answer  follows  the  question,  an  impossible  situa- 
tion is  created  for  the  pupils.  The  pupils  are  ex- 
pected to  realize  the  need  of  the  answer  and  then 
to  find  it,  —  and  there  it  is  before  their  eyes ! 
Why  realize  its  need,  and  why  find  it  when  they 
already  know  it }  It  would  be  better  to  have  it  at 
the  back  of  the  book  or  in  a  separate  book.  Often 
it  is  best  not  to  have  it  accessible  at  all  and  to 
have  all  pupils  prove  their  work  by  employing 
the  results  they  obtain.  A  class  which  has  easy 
access  to  answers  is  usually  a  class  which  is  not" 
strong  in  its  reasoning.  Such  pupils  are  not  at 
all  sure  of  themselves.  They  frequently  juggle 
with  figures  until  they  get  an  answer  that  agrees 
with  the  one  in  the  book,  but  they  cannot  explain 
their  procedure,  nor  give  reasons  for  the  steps 
taken.  Conditions  which  lead  to  such  intellectual 
helplessness  and  dishonesty  should  be  avoided  as 
much  as  possible. 


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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

13.    The  number  of  steps  employed  in  solving  any 

problem 

When  the  theory  of  the  five  formal  steps  of  in- 
struction was  first  introduced  into  this  country, 
a  number  of  teachers  gained  the  idea  that  all  of 
the  steps  must  be  employed  in  all  teaching.  The 
result  was  that  the  teaching  became  mechanical 
and  formal,  the  teachers  were  greatly  and  un- 
necessarily overworked,  and  there  was  not  enough 
gain  to  the  pupils  to  counterbalance  the  expendi- 
ture of  energy.  If  teachers  attempt  to  force  pupils 
to  use  all  of  the  steps  of  thoughtful  study  in  the 
solution  of  every  problem,  there  will  be  a  similar 
breaking  down  of  the  whole  idea.  The  work  will 
become  hopelessly  formal  and  will  presently  be 
abandoned.  Common  sense  must  prevail ;  and 
the  nature  of  the  problem,  the  ability  of  the  pu- 
pils, and  the  materials  available  for  use  in  solving 
the  problem  must  influence  the  steps  involved. 

It  has  been  shown  in  earlier  chapters  that  it  is 
J  necessary  to  all  thoughtful  study  that  there  be 
a  problem  in  the  mind  of  the  student.  This  step, 
then,  the  realization  of  a  problem,  must  be  pre- 
sent whether  the  study  be  inductive  or  deductive. 
Data  of  some  sort  must  be  present,  from  what- 
ever source  obtained,  but  the  amount  necessary, 

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TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

as  well  as  the  sources  employed,  will  vary.  Some- 
times very  little  organization  will  be  required, 
while  at  others  there  will  be  need  of  very  care- 
ful and  comprehensive  organization.  In  solving 
some  problems,  the  element  of  doubt  may  not 
enter  at  all  as  a  factor,  while  at  other  times  there 
may  be  need  of  close  scrutiny  of  both  hypothe- 
sis and  data.  Some  problems  are  so  simple,  and 
the  material  attainable  is  so  convincing,  that  a 
final  judgment  may  be  given  quickly ;  but  this  is 
not  always  possible.  It  may  be  necessary  to  de- 
fer for  a  time  a  definite  conclusion ;  indeed,  final 
answers  are  sometimes  never  possible  to  the  - 
student  who  first  discovers  the  problem.  The 
theory  of  world  formation  is  still  an  hypothesis, 
though  it  is  long  since  men  first  began  to  reflect 
upon  the  making  of  worlds. 

Memorizing,  too,  will  vary.  It  may  not  be  re- 
quired at  all;  the  order  of  the  steps  thought 
out  may  be  memorized  ;  the  conclusions  may  be 
learned  in  the  pupils'  own  wording ;  or  memo- 
rizing may  be  necessary  as  in  learning  poems, 
rules,  definitions,  and  other  forms.  It  should  be 
based  upon  understanding,  and  then  carried  out 
with  vigor.  Close  attention  and  energy  devoted 
to  the  formal  side,  after  the  ideas  have  been 
mastered,  will  make  the  process  relatively  easy. 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

j/^As  to  verification,  there  should  be  enough  of 
it,  in  some  form,  to  satisfy  the  problem.  In  alge- 
bra and  other  forms  of  mathematics,  this  verifi- 
cation is  carried  out  by  employing  the  answer 
found  and  seeing  if  it  satisfies  the  conditions  laid 
down  in  the  examples  given.  In  the  case  of  cer- 
tain social  theories,  one  may  point  to  actual  situa- 
tions as  a  verification  or  may  follow  out  imagi- 
nary results.  Enough  to  satisfy  the  problem  makes 
a  good  working  rule  for  verification.  In  the  past, 
our  sins  in  this  respect  have  been  those  of  omis- 
sion rather  than  those  of  commission.  We  are 
more  likely  to  require  too  little  than  too  much 
verifying,  and  to  fail  in  improving  valuable  op- 
portunities for  training  in  testing  results.  The 
consequence  is  that  pupils  are  left  satisfied  with 
very  immature  theories,  and  with  little  or  no 
conception  of  the  necessity  and  value  of  proof. 

14.   TJie  order  in  whicJi  the  factors  of  study  are 

employed 

Either  reflection  or  experience  will  show  a 
teacher  that  the  factors  of  proper  study  will  not 
always  be  employed  in  the  same  order.  For  ex- 
ample, doubt  may  be  present  at  almost  any  stage 
in  the  solution  of  a  problem ;  and  some  memo- 
rizing may  be  necessary  when  a  part  of  the  work 

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TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

has  been  accomplished  in  order  to  hold  the  re- 
sults already  achieved.  In  working  out  some 
long  or  involved  rule  or  definition  by  the  induc- 
tive method,  it  is  often  best  to  work  out  one 
part  at  a  time  and  fix  it  firmly  in  the  mind  before 
proceeding  to  another  section  of  the  problem, •' 
Furthermore,  the  collecting  of  data  is  not  limited 
to  a  certain  place  in  study.  The  student  may 
need  to  search  for  facts  to  enable  him  to  define 
his  problem  clearly,  or  to  help  him  formulate  a 
theory  for  the  solution  of  the  problem,  or  to  test 
the  theory  when  it  has  been  formulated.  Hard 
and  fast  rules  as  to  the  order  of  the  steps  in 
thoughtful  study  can  hardly  be  laid  down.  Re- 
cognition of  the  problem  has  been  called  the  first 
step,  but  even  this  first  step  may  be  accompa- 
nied by  doubt,  by  the  collecting  of  data,  and 
possibly  by  some  of  the  others. 

Whenever  data  are  employed,  the  necessity 
for  the  exercise  of  doubt  and  for  organization 
may  arise ;  and  whenever  theories  are  formulated, 
there  may  be  occasion  for  decision  as  to  whether 
the  conclusions  are  final  or  merely  tentative. 
Naturally,  verification  must  follow  the  forming  ' 
of  conclusions  or  theories.  The  path  can  only  be 
marked  out  broadly  for  the  use  of  the  steps,  and 
the  conditions  present  when  some  individual  prob- 

i6i 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

lem  is  under  consideration  will  influence  the  vari- 
ations from  the  path. 

To  illustrate  the  variation  in  procedure,  we 
may  think  of  the  problems  connected  with  fish- 
ing as  they  are  studied  by  the  pupils  who  live  in 
the  fishing  towns  on  the  New  England  coast  and 
as  they  would  have  to  be  studied  by  children 
living  inland.  The  latter  would  probably  have  to 
gather  much  information  about  fishermen  and 
fishing  before  they  could  even  realize  the  nature 
of  the  problems ;  while  the  pupils  living  in  the 
midst  of  the  trade  can  more  easily  appreciate 
them,  since  they  know  the  situation  at  first  hand. 
These  children  of  the  coast,  too,  can  gather  their 
data  from  observation  and  consequently  need 
not  suspect  their  sources  of  information  of  being 
unreliable,  as  the  other  class  of  children  might 
be  obliged  to  do.  They  are  also  in  a  better  posi- 
tion to  verify  conclusions.  The  whole  situation 
is  more  favorable  for  them  than  for  pupils  remote 
from  the  sea.  But  when  the  problem  relates  to 
life  on  the  plains  or  in  the  mountains,  then  the 
situation  above  described  is  exactly  reversed,  and 
the  order  of  the  steps  of  study  would  be  mate- 
rially changed  for  both  sets  of  pupils ;  also,  the 
extent  to  which  some  of  the  steps  would  be  em- 
ployed. 

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TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

15.  External  aids  to  study 

There  are  several  external  aids  to  study  which 
pupils  should  master  as  they  have  need  of  them. 
c^ne  of  these  is  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  Chil- 
dren should  know  how  to  find  a  word,  pronounce 
it,  and  select  the  one  meaning  which  is  appli- 
cable to  the  situation  in  which  the  word  is  used. 
To  use  the  dictionary  and  pronouncing  vocabu- 
laries properly,  the  pupils  must  know  how  to  in- 
terpret the  accent  marks  and  also  the  common 
diacritical  marks.  Where  several  meanings  are 
given,  they  must  learn  to  choose  the  appropri- 
ate one.  If  they  are  looking  for  the  meanings  of 
words  to  satisfy  a  conscious  need,  they  will  be 
more  likely  to  choose  the  correct  definition,  or 
the  suitable  synonym.   . 

A  second  aid  is  the  table  of  contents  of  a  book. 
Pupils  looking  for  material  usually  need  to  be 
trained  to  use  the  table  of  contents,  or  even  to 
discover  its  existence.  They  need  practice  in  find- 
ing the  appropriate  chapter,  and  then  the  part  of 
the  chapter  relevant  to  the  subject  which  is  under 
consideration.  Training  in  the  use  of  an  alpha-: 
betical  index  is  also  necessary.  It  is  time  well 
spent  to  teach  the  use  of  these  various  aids,  and, 
when  experience  shows  it   to  be  necessary,  to 

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TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

give  special  drill  in  the  use  of  the  dictionary, 
pronouncing  vocabulary,  table  of  contents,  and 
index. 

{/  The  encyclopaedia  offers  a  new  difficulty  be- 
cause of  its  exhaustive  treatment  of  various  top- 
ics. Pupils  need  to  learn  how  to  find  the  volume 
needed,  the  topic  in  the  volume,  and  the  part  of 
the  article  desired.  The  treatment  of  the  mate- 
rial when  found  has  already  been  described,  as 
that  is  study  of  content. 

When  the  pupils  are  old  enough  to  use  libraries 
where  Poole's  or  other  annual  indexes  of  current 
literature  are  found,  a  new  aid  to  study  must  be 
mastered,  and  either  the  teacher  or  some  library 
assistant  should  give  the  necessary  instruction. 

♦•The  use  of  the  card  catalogue  of  authors  and 
titles  may  be  learned  in  the  same  lesson.  All 
these  aids  to  study  are  a  part  of  literary  life.  We 
frequently  assume  that  knowledge  of  their  use  is 
universal,  and  consequently  give  the  rising  gen- 
eration no  help  in  processes  which  in  themselves 
are  not  natural  but  must  be  learned.  Training  in 
these  external  aids  greatly  extends  the  power  of 
pupils  to  acquire  new  material  for  themselves, 
and  enables  them  to  work  much  more  rapidly. 


164 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

i6.  Hindrances  to  training  pupils  to  stndy 
a.  Individual  differences  in  ability 

Doubtless  many  teachers  will  think  that  in 
their  particular  conditions  nothing  can  be  done 
towards  teaching  their  pupils  to  study  because' 
the  obstacles  are  too  great.  They  may  urge  as 
one  objection  that  their  pupils  vary  greatly  in 
ability,  and  that  therefore  they  cannot  hope  to 
give  effective  training  in  systematic  study.  It 
is  not  clear  why  inequality  of  ability  should  be  a 
hindrance  to  training  in  proper  study  any  more 
than  it  is  a  hindrance  to  any  kind  of  teaching  or 
training.  No  class  of  children  have  equal  abilities 
in  any  one  line,  and  yet  teachers  attempt  to  train 
classes  in  many  directions.  The  objection  urged 
applies  equally  to  all  work,  and  need  not  prevent 
training  in  study,  since  it  does  not  prevent  train- 
ing in  other  lines. 

Proper  study  gives  the  bright  pupils  a  fitting 
opportunity  to  use  their  powers,  since  they  may 
exercise  initiative,  search  widely  for  materials, 
experiment,  make  reports,  and  in  various  ways 
employ  their  activities.  They  derive  a  benefit  from 
being  bright  which  mere  memorizing  never  be- 
stows. The  slower,  duller  pupils  will  lose  nothing 
by  using  their  powers  intelligently.  At  the  worst, 

i6s 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

they  can  only  fall  back  upon  memorizing,  a  pro- 
cess to  which  they  have  been  accustomed. 

b.    The  limitations  of  the  teacher 

The  teacher  will  find  his  own  limitations  to  lie 
..  in  mastering  the  theory  of  study,  in  applying  it 
to  his  own  study,  and  in  teaching  others  to  em- 
ploy it.  But  these  same  hindrances  have  existed 
in  connection  with  every  advance  in  method  and 
also  in  connection  with  every  new  subject  intro- 
duced into  the  curriculum.  They  are  transient. 
Not  all  teachers  can  learn  to  train  pupils  with 
the  same  degree  of  success,  but  with  study  and 
with  thoughtful  trial,  progress  can  be  made. 
There  is  no  royal  road  in  this  special  kind  of 
work,  any  more  than  there  is  in  others  ;  but  the 
obstacles  can  be  overcome,  to  a  great  degree  at 
least,  by  intelligent,  persistent  effort.  Practice  will 
make  it  much  easier  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  prob- 
lems and  to  become  more  self-helpful  in  solving 
them.  Furthermore,  as  the  children  grow  in  the 
use  of  right  methods  of  study,  the  teacher's  work 
should  become  easier  and  more  pleasing.  The 
child  will  do  his  share  of  work  and  the  teacher 
will  be  supervising  interesting  thought,  not  drill- 
'^  ing  on  barren  words. 


i66 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

c.    TJie  tendency  to  overestimate  small  points 

One  tendency  which  teachers  will  need  to 
guard  against  will  be  the  tendency  of  the  pupils 
to  attach  too  much  importance  to  small  points, 
to  quibble  over  little  things,  and  to  spend  too 
much  time  upon  non-essentials.  Because  of  their 
immaturity  and  lack  of  experience,  children  lack 
perspective  and  so  are  willing  to  spend  time  upon 
unimportant  subjects.  Their  judgment  needs  ^ 
developing.  Consequently  they  need  to  consider 
such  questions  as  these :  Does  the  point  you  are 
considering  bear  upon  the  subject  we  are  dis- 
cussing.?  Is  it  important  enough  to  justify  our 
spending  much  time  upon  it }  It  may  be  neces- 
sary at  times  for  the  teacher  to  sweep  the  whole 
discussion  aside  with  the  statement  that  it  is  not 
valuable,  and  to  direct  the  class  to  the  considera- 
tion of  other  data  or  problems.  An  experienced 
teacher,  in  speaking  of  the  difficulties  lying  in 
the  way  of  permitting  children  to  exercise  initia- 
tive, said  that  he  thought  the  initiative  would 
have  to  be  directed.  He  is  doubtless  right.  Some- 
where between  absolute  direction  at  one  extreme, 
and  absolute  freedom  of  initiative  at  the  other, 
the  wiser  course  will  be  found. 


167 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

d.  The  lack  of  logical  arrangement  of  subject- 
matter  in  books 

The  arrangement  of  material  in  text-books  will 
sometimes  be  found  to  constitute  a  barrier  to 
proper  study  because  the  subject-matter  is  not 
well  organized.  Paragraphs  are  so  confused  that 
the  author  of  the  book  as  well  as  any  one  else 
would  have  great  difficulty  in  writing  paragraph 
headings.  There  is  no  logical  order  but  rather  a 
rambling,  disconnected  mass  of  statements.  It  is 
difficult  to  use  such  texts  as  supplementary  ma- 
terial, and  still  more  difficult  to  use  them  as 
sources  of  problems,  since  the  authors  themselves 
were  apparently  not  aware  of  any.  This  lack  of 
organization  offers  a  genuine  difficulty  to  pupils. 
If  texts  are  selected  which  are  well  arranged, 
some  of  the  difficulty  will  be  overcome.  It  may, 
however,  sometimes  be  necessary  to  use  inferior 
texts  because  they  are  the  best  to  be  obtained. 

When  the  subject-matter  is  poorly  arranged, 
the  teacher  ought  to  do  more  teaching  and  to  rely 
less  upon  the  book.  The  latter  becomes  more  of 
a  reference  book,  a  source  for  data  bearing  upon 
the  problems  developed  in  class.  The  pupils  will 
be  better  able  to  sift  out  relevant  material  from 
a  somewhat  incoherent  text  than  to  discovei 

i68 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

problems  when  the  author  himself  was  not  keenly 
conscious  of  them.  Both  teacher  and  pupils  are 
at  a  disadvantage  in  using  such  books,  but  they 
exist  as  sources  for  information  both  in  school 
and  out,  and  the  best  must  be  made  of  them. 

17.  Effect     of   proper  study    upon    schoolroom 

procedure 

Any  course  of  procedure  which  influences 
greatly  the  spirit  of  a  school  must  affect  the 
discipline  of  that  school  to  a  marked  degree. 
Studying  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying  needs,  of 
solving  problems,  must  result  in  a  different  atti- 
tude towards  subject-matter  on  the  part  of  both 
teacher  and  pupils.  It  involves  cooperation  and 
a  spirit  of  good  fellowship  between  teacher  and 
class.  Out  of  these  spiritual  and  mental  attitudes 
must  come  a  kind  of  schoolroom  procedure  which 
is  very  different  from  the  rigid,  repressive  dis- 
cipline which  allows  no  initiative  to  pupils,  and 
which  centres  all  in  the  teacher.  With  the  inter- 
est of  the  class  aroused,  the  teacher  has  less  oc- 
casion to  resort  to  compulsion  or  to  penalties  in 
order  to  have  lessons  prepared.  Nor  should  dis- 
cipline be  so  difficult  when  pupils  are  working 
for  purposes  growing  out  of  their  own  interests. 
Pupils  will  need  to  have  freedom  to  consult  maps, 

169 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

charts,  and  books  of  reference  if  they  are  to  col- 
lect data  bearing  upon  their  problems.  They 
may  need  to  learn  to  do  this  in  a  proper  way  and 
at  proper  times,  so  as  to  cause  as  little  disturb- 
ance as  possible  to  class  exercises.  Some  pupils 
need  to  realize  that  it  is  often  best  to  find  what 
their  own  text-books  have  to  say  on  a  subject  be- 
fore they  go  to  the  reference  shelves  for  other 
books.  But  on  the  whole,  with  a  working  spirit, 
there  will  be  an  atmosphere  of  work,  and  that 
need  not  be  unruly.  It  is  for  the  teacher  to  see 
that  energy  is  not  dissipated  and  that  the  free- 
dom of  a  busy  class  does  not  degenerate  into  a 
state  of  disorder  which  makes  fruitful  effort  im- 
possible to  those  who  wish  to  study. 

It  has  been  shown  in  preceding  chapters  that 
the  class  exercises  cannot  consist  solely  of  a  series 
of  questions  propounded  by  teachers  and  answered 
by  pupils,  or  of  mere  memory  recitations  of  text. 
There  will  of  necessity  be  questioning  by  the  pu- 
pils themselves,  the  suggestion  and  discussion 
of  theory,  the  weighing  of  statements  made  by 
different  members  of  the  class,  and,  in  short, 
participation  in  a  variety  of  ways  by  the  class. 
/The  pupils  should  be  expected  to  exercise  initi- 
ative  in  discovering  and  solving  problems  relat- 
ing  to  the  school,  whether  they  be  problems  per- 

170 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

taining  to  lessons  or  to  discipline.  They  require 
encouragement  and  training  in  the  wise  develop- 
ment of  such  initiative.  It  is  an  important  duty 
of  the  teacher  to  meet  this  requirement.  Pupils 
should  be  held  responsible  for  the  recitations 
of  their  mates.  They  should  demand  that  such 
recitations  be  made  in  tones  loud  enough  to  be 
heard.  They  should  challenge  incorrect  and  irrel- 
evant statements,  instead  of  leaving  all  criticism 
to  the  teacher,  who,  to  be  sure,  usually  assumes 
it  at  the  beginning  of  the  term  and  never  dele- 
gates it.  Responsibility  should  be  placed  upon 
the  pupils  more  and  more  as  they  develop  in 
ability.  Children  are  not  unwilling  to  exercise 
activity  in  the  ways  mentioned.  The  difficulty  in 
many  cases  is  that  they  are  not  expected  or  per- 
mitted to  do  so. 

A  large  share  of  the  teacher's  responsibility 
is  responsibility  which  belongs  rightfully  to  the 
class.  This  point  has  already  been  touched  upon 
in  a  preceding  paragraph,  but  will  bear  repeti- 
tion. The  teacher  who  asks  all  the  questions, 
finds  all  the  large  points,  makes  all  the  summa- 
ries and  outlines,  decides  whether  the  problem  is 
solved  or  not,  is  doing  the  work  which  pupils 
should  do.  Children  in  an  average  fourth  grade 
can  perform  many  of  the  activities  just  men- 

171 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

tioned.    A  fifth  grade  can  do  still   more,   and 
higher  grades  will  be  found  even  more  capable. 

The  field  is  open  for  experimentation  in  these 
and  other  lines  in  teaching  children  to  study. 
The  conclusions  and  suggestions  here  presented 
are  based  upon  observations  made  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  classes,  and  some  good  results  have  been 
witnessed.   Experience  has  shown  that  even  a  lit- 
tle effort  put  forth  brings  a  rich  reward,  though 
as  yet  the  whole  movement  is  in  its  beginning. 
Some  teachers  of  only  average  ability  have  tried 
to  train  very  ordinary  classes  into  habits  of  sys- 
tematic study,  and  have  seen  most  encouraging 
results  within  a  few  weeks ;  so  that  no  teacher 
should  refuse  to  attempt  to  train  his  class  be- 
cause he  thinks  that  only  a  chosen  few  can  study 
successfully.  The  need  of  such  training  is  urgent, 
and  those  teachers  who  will  grapple  boldly  with 
the  problems  involved  in  it,  who  will  discover 
the  best  ways  of  working  with  pupils,  the  diffi- 
culties to  be  avoided  or  overcome,  and  who  will 
put  the  results  of  their  efforts  before  the  teach- 
ing world  in  some  accessible  form  will  be  render- 
ing valuable  service.  For  the  most  part,  however, 
each  teacher  will  have  to  work  out  his  own  de- 
vices, based  upon  the  fundamental  principles. 
In  conclusion,  one  caution  is  urged  upon  teach- 

172 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

ers,  and  that  is  that  they  avoid  making  this  train- 
ing too  formal.  One  teacher  thought  the  best  way 
to  train  her  class  was  to  teach  it  to  recite  the 
steps  of  logical  study  in  order.  She  quite  missed 
the  point  of  the  whole  idea.  If  the  children  learn 
what  the  steps  are  from  their  frequent  use  of 
them,  no  harm  is  done ;  but  simply  to  memorize 
them  makes  the  whole  theory  a  lifeless  form. 

It  is  difficult  to  write  suggestions,  because  as 
soon  as  written  they  appear  very  rigid  and  lack- 
ing in  adaptability.  Let  it  be  remembered  that 
the  teacher  must  read  the  spirit  into  what  has 
been  said,  and  that  he  must  not  lose  touch  with 
it  as  he  teaches.  If  only  he  will  do  that,  he  will 
be  able  to  work  out  much  more  for  himself  than 
the  writer  has  been  able  to  suggest. 

General  Summary 

(i)  The  teacher  who  undertakes  to  teach  his 
pupils  to  study  must  regard  the  subject-matter  of 
instruction  as  a  means  of  training  in  right  habits 
as  well  as  a  means  of  acquiring  knowledge.  (2) 
He  must  establish  friendly  relations  with  the 
pupils,  and  must  cooperate  with  them.  (3)  The 
training  cannot  be  confined  to  one  subject  if  it  is 
to  be  general  in  its  application.  It  must  be  asso- 
ciated with   all  possible  situations.    (4)    Little 

173 


TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

children  should  be  trained  to  study  without  con- 
sciousness of  the  method.  Right  habits  are  the 
first  consideration  with  them.  As  pupils  grow 
older,  they  may  be  made  conscious  of  the  factors 
of  proper  study,  so  that  they  may  better  under- 
stand how  to  direct  their  own  efforts.  (5)  In  the 
earlier  stages  of  training  pupils  to  study,  the 
teacher  will  need  to  work  with  the  class,  and 
he  will  throw  the  pupils  upon  their  own  resources 
as  their  ability  to  use  the  factors  of  study  de- 
velops. (6)  This  training  will  include  all  of  the 
phases  of  study  at  some  time,  but  not  all  of 
the  factors  will  necessarily  be  employed  in  every 
lesson.  (7)  The  order  in  which  the  factors  of 
study  are  employed  is  not  fixed.  (8)  In  training 
pupils  to  study,  the  use  of  such  external  aids  as 
the  dictionary,  the  encyclopaedia,  pronouncing 
gazetteers,  indexes,  tables  of  contents,  and  card 
catalogues  must  be  included  in  the  process.  (9) 
While  various  obstacles  oppose  themselves  to  the 
successful  issue  of  training  pupils  to  study  pro- 
perly, very  few  of  them  are  peculiar  to  this  branch 
of  training,  and  none  are  insurmountable.  (10) 
The  teacher  must  accustom  the  pupils  to  assume 
responsibility,  to  exercise  initiative,  to  participate 
in  the  work  of  the  class  and  school,  to  ask  ques- 
tions, and  to  be  critical  of  their  own  efforts  and 

174 


■e .- 


TRAINING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 

those  of  their  classmates.  The  teacher  must  to 
some  extent  eliminate  himself.  He  must  con- 
tribute less,  and  must  demand  greater  contribu- 
tions from  the  class.  He  must  perform  less  of  the 
work,  and  must  train  the  pupils  in  thoughtful 
ways  of  working. 

Note.  —  The  following  books  contain  helpful  ideas  on 
method  of  study :  — 

F.  M.  McMuRRY,  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How 
to  Sttidy. 

F.  M.  McMuRRY,  "Some  Suggestions  for  the  Im- 
provement of  the  Study  Period,"  Proceedings  of 
the  N.  E.  A.  1906. 

John  Dewey,  School  and  Society  ;  Moral  Principles 
in  Education. 

W.  C.  Bagley,  The  Educative  Process,  chap.  xxi. 

E.L.TuORNUiKE,  Principleso/Teaching,chaps.ix,x. 

William  James,  TalAs  to  Teachers. 


OUTLINE 

(for  study  and  discussion,  consisting  of  chapter,  main  and  sub-head- 
ings as  given  in  body  of  work) 

I.  THE  NATURE  OF  LOGICAL  STUDY 

Page 

1.  The  universal  necessity  for  study i 

2.  The  inadequacy  of  instincts  to  solve  problems      .  3 

3.  The  need  of  learning  how  to  study 3 

4.  The  nature  of  study 4 

5.  The  kind  of  thinking  employed  in  studying  ...  6 

6.  The  origin  or  source  of  the  problem 7 

a.  Failure  of  habitual  modes  of  thought  and  ac- 

tion     7 

b.  The    need   of    relating    new  knowledge   to 

old 8 

c.  Conflict  of  ideas 9 

d.  Curiosity  as  a  source  of  problems    .     .     .     .11 

e.  The  necessity  for  activity 12 

f.  Feeling  as  a  source  of  problems 13 

7.  The  aim  of  study 15 

8.  Thinking,  memorizing,  and  habit-forming     .     .     .16 

9.  The  relation  of  the  problem  to  the  person  who  is 

to  study 17 

ID.  The  need  of  definiteness  in  the  aim 19 

II.  Recognition  of  the  problem  the  first  factor  in  logi- 
cal study 21 

General  Summary 21 

177 


OUTLINE 

II.   THE  NATURE  OF  INDUCTIVE  STUDY 

Page 

1.  The  distinction  between  inductive  and  deductive 

study 25 

2.  Collecting  data  a  factor  in  inductive  study    ...  26 

a.  Memory  a  source  of  data 27 

b.  Group-experience  a  source  of  data  ....  28 

c.  Experimentation  and  observation  as  sources 

of  data 29 

d.  The  teacher  as  a  source  of  information    .     .31 

e.  Lectures  versus  books  as  sources  of  data      .  32 

f.  The  use  of  original  sources  by  pupils    ...  33 

g.  The  fallacy  of  relying  habitually  upon  one 

source  of  data 35 

h.  The  rejection  of  irrelevant  data 35 

i.  The  necessity  of  having  data  representative  .  36 

3.  The   organization  of  ideas  a  factor  in  inductive 

study 37 

4.  The  results  of  the  selection  and  organization  of 

data        39 

5.  Scientific  doubt  a  factor  in  inductive  study  ...  40 

6.  The  tentative  nature  of  hypotheses  and  theories    .  44 

7.  Verification,  or  the  application  of  theory,  a  factor 

in  study 46 

8.  The  place  of  memorizing  in  inductive  study      .     .  49 

9.  The  preservation  of  self  in  and  through  study  .     .52 
General  Summary 55 

III.   THE   NATURE   OF  DEDUCTIVE  STUDY 

1.  Necessity  of  understanding  the  problem  ....  61 

2.  Deductive  study  which  begins  with  the  data     .    .  61 

178 


OUTLINE 

Page 

3.  Deductive  study  which  begins  with  general  know- 

ledge      63 

4.  General  knowledge  prerequisite  to  deductive  study  65 

5.  Using  generalizations  in  related  fields      ....  66 

6.  The  study  of  typical  forms 67 

7.  The  use  of  analogy  in  moral  training 67 

8.  Doubt  as  a  source  of  problems 69 

9.  The  need  of  collecting  data 7° 

10.  The  sources  of  data 72 

11.  The  organization  of  ideas  a  factor  in  deductive 

study 73 

12.  Judging  the  soundness  of  statements  or  the  ade- 

quacy of  a  theory  a  necessary  factor  in  de- 
ductive study 74 

13.  Suspension  of  judgment  an  element  in  deductive 

study 75 

14.  The  testing  of  theory 75 

15.  Memorizing  in  connection  with  deductive  study    .  76 

16.  Self-expression  and  self -development  through  de- 

ductive study 77 

General  Summary 79 

IV.  THE  RELATION  OF  RATIONAL  STUDY  TO 
TEXT-BOOK  STUDY 

1.  Consciousness  of  the  author's  problem  or  pur- 

pose the  first  factor  in  text-book  study     .     .  84 

2.  Gathering  data  a  factor  in  text-book  study  ...  85 

3.  The  organization  of  ideas  in  text-book  study  .     .  87 

4.  The  necessity  of  deferred  judgment  in  the  study 

of  books 88 

5.  The  consideration  of  the  soundness  of  statements 

3  factor  in  the  study  of  a  book 91 

179 


OUTLINE 

Pagb 

6.  The  need  of  verification  or  the  application  of 

theory  in  the  study  of  the  text-book     ...  94 

7.  Memorizing  as  a  factor  in  study 96 

8.  Some  phases  of  deductive  study  of  books  ...  97 

9.  The  relation  of  proper  text-book  study  to  initia- 

tive and  self-development 100 

10.  Are  all  of  the  factors  employed  in  all  study?  .     .  loi 
General  Summary 103 

V.  DO   CHILDREN   POSSESS  THE  ABILITY  TO 
STUDY  LOGICALLY? 

1.  The  importance  of  knowing  whether  children  can 

study 109 

2.  Factors  influencing  the  preparation  of  the  experi- 

ments to  determine  the  ability  of  pupils  to 
study no 

3.  The  subject  and  classes  chosen  for  the  tests  .     .110 

4.  The  nature  of  the  tests 112 

5.  The  ability  of  pupils  to  find  what  a  lesson  is  about  115 

6.  The  ability  of  pupils  to  organize  subject-matter  115 

7.  The  abihty  of  pupils  to  exercise  doubt  .     .     .     .116 

8.  The  ability  to  supplement  the  text  of  the  lesson  116 

9.  The  ability  to  see  problems  relating  to  the  lesson  117 

10.  The  ability  to  group  related  ideas 118 

11.  The  formulation  of  hypotheses  by  pupils     .     .     .118 
General  Summary 120 

VI.    ARE    CHILDREN  TAUGHT    TO    STUDY 
LOGICALLY  ? 

1.  The  waste  of  effort  shown  by  the  tests    .     .     .     .123 

2.  Reasons  why  the  factors  of  logical  study  are  not 

employed  more  generally 126 

180 


I 


t 


OUTLINE 

Page 

3.  A  second  means  of  investigating  present  proce- 

dure in  teaching  children  to  study   .     .     .     .127 

4.  General  summary  of  the  questionnaires,  and  ob- 

servations      129 

VII.   CAN  CHILDREN   BE  TAUGHT  TO    STUDY 
LOGICALLY  ? 

1.  The  attempt  to  train  pupils  in  the  use  of  the  fac- 

tors of  logical  study I33 

2.  Summary  of  the  comparisons  of  the  trained  and 

the  untrained  groups 136 

3.  An  experiment  in  teaching  pupils  to  study  a  read- 

ing lesson 136 

General  summary  of  the  tests  and  experiments  .  137 


Vm.   SUGGESTIONS  FOR  TRAINING  CHILDREN 

TO  STUDY 

1.  The  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  subjects  to  be 

taught 141 

2.  The  teacher's  attitude  toward  the  class  .     .     .     .143 

3.  The  need  of  training  in  many  directions     .     .     .144 

4.  Consciousness  of  factors  not  necessary  with  very 

young  children I44 

5.  Learning  to  find  the  problem I45 

6.  The  function  of  the  lesson  assignment    ....  148 

7.  Learning  to  supplement  the  text 149 

8.  Judging  the  value  of  material 150 

9.  Learning  to  organize  data 152 

10.  Training  pupils  to  work  quickly IS4 

11.  The  value  of  the  puzzle  problem I5S 

12.  The   position   of   the   answer:    its   effect  upon 

study 157 

181 


OUTLINE 

Page 

13.  The  number  of  steps  employed  in  solving  any 

problem icg 

14.  The  order  in  which  the  factors  of  study  are  em- 

ployed  160 

15.  External  aids  to  study 163 

16.  Hindrances  to  training  pupils  to  study   ....   i6» 

a.  Individual  differences  in  ability i6t, 

b.  The  limitations  of  the  teacher 166 

c.  The  tendency  to  overestimate  small  points  .  167 

d.  The  lack  of  logical  arrangement  of  subject- 
matter  in  books 168 

17.  Effect  of  proper  study  upon  schoolroom  proce- 

dure       1(5^ 

General  Summary    .....         173 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U    .    S    .    A 


RIVERSIDE  EDUCATIONAL 
MONOGRAPHS 

GENERAL  EDUCATIONAL  THEORY 
Dkwkt's  moral  principles  in  education 36 

Eliot's  EDUCATION  FOR  EFFICIENCY 36 

Eliot's  TENDENCY  TO  THE  CONCRETE  AND  PRACTICAL  IN  MOD- 
ERN EDUCATION.  Ill  Press. 

E merson's  EDUCATION SB 

riSKE's  THE  MEANING  OF  INFANCY 36 

Hyde's  THE  TEACHER'S  PHILOSOPHY 36 

Palmer's  THE  IDEAL  TEACHER 36 

Prosser's  THE  TEACHER  AND  OLD  AGE 60 

Terma.n's  THE  TEACHER'S  HEALTH 60 

Thobndike's  INDIVIDUALITY. 36 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  SCHOOLS 

Bbtts's  new  IDEALS  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 60 

Bloomfield's  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  OF  YOUTH 60 

Cubberlet's  CHANGING  CONCEPTIONS  OF  EDUCATION 36 

Cubberley's  the  improvement  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS 35 

Perry's  STATUS  OF  THE  TEACHER 36 

Snbdde.n's  THE  PROBLEM  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 36 

Trowbridge's  THE  HOME  SCHOOL 60 

Weeks's  THE  PEOPLE'S  SCHOOL  60 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
Bailey's  ART  EDUCATION.  Iji  Press. 

Betts's  THE  RECITATION 60 

Campaonac's  THE  TEACHING  OF  COMPOSITION 36 

Cooley's  language  teaching  IN  THE  GRADES 35 

Dewey's  INTEREST  AND  EFFORT  IN  EDUCATION 60 

Earhabt's  TEACHING  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY  60 

Evans's  TEACHING  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL  MATHEMATICS 35 

Halibdrton  and  Smith's  TEACHING  POETRY  IN  THE  GRADES 60 

Hartwell's  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY 35 

Palmer's  ETHICAL  AND  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS..     36 

Palmer's  SELF-CULTIVATION  IN  ENGLISH 36 

Slzzallo's  the  TEACHING  OF  PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC 60 

rfnzZALLO's  THE  TEACHING  OF  SPELLING 60 

iii6 


A  CONVENIENT  PLAN  FOR  SECUR- 
ING THE  MONOGRAPHS 

Every  progressive  superintendent  and  every 
wide-awake  teacher  will  wish  to  read  and  study 
the  volumes  in  this  Series,  as  they  appear.  To 
avoid  the  necessity  of  teachers'  sending  an  order 
for  each  number  of  the  Series,  as  issued,  the  pub- 
lishers will  place  the  names  of  those  who  desire 
it  on  a  Subscription  List,  and  the  volumes,  as 
they  appear,  will  be  sent  automatically  to  each  oi 
these  persons.  In  this  way,  one  of  the  best  and 
most  convenient  professional  libraries  may  be 
built  up.  Those  desiring  to  place  their  names  on 
this  Subscription  List  will  please  indicate  it  below, 
in  the  blank  provided  for  this  purpose. 

This  page  maybe  detached  and  returned  to  the 
publishers  at  the  address  given. 


ORDER  BLANK 

Date . 

MESSRS.  HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  CO.,  4  Park  St.,  BosTor. 
Inclosed  find  ? for  which  please  send  me  the  quan- 
tities indicated  of  the  volumes  marked  in  the  list  of  Riverside 
Educational  Monographs  on  the  preceding  page. 

(  Volumes  will  be  charged  to  customers  having  regular  accounts.') 

Name 

Street • 

City 

State 

FOR  THE  SUBSCRIPTION   LIST 
I  desire  to  have  my  name  placed  on  the  regular  Subscription 
List  to  receive  all  future  volumes  in  the  Series,  as  they  appear, 
antil  further  notice. 

Signature ••••» 

tli7 


HJinniniifiimnmu ''''^'^L  liboary  facility 


AA    000  647  809 


STATS  NORMAL  '^^^^ 

LOS  AJ^GWUm.  CAli 


